Transcript
MARIN COUNTY FREE LIBRARY
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3 1111
History of
00236 6969
RENAISSANCE ART
PAINTING
•
SCULPTURE
•
ARCHITECTURE
throughout
EUROPE
CREIGHTON GILBERT
H. U^
JAN SON General Editor
A B R A
M
S
This volume in the Z,!feranio/.4rr//«;orv brings together
the architecture, sculpture,
turies
— 1300
1600
to
and painting of three cenNo com-
— throughout Europe.
parable book has treated this span in
the whole of Renaissance
is
its
entirety; here
art, set in
the context
of the religion, society,
and economics of the time.
The Renaissance period has m-" facets, and seen
through this wide lens we
uiuatLhed view
as our focus shifts between north and south, east and
'
west:
from Leonardo
to Diirer;
from Titian
to
Bruegel; from Masaccio and Donatello to Claus Sluter
and Jan van Evck.
The author, Creighton
Gilbert, has de\
is;
'
i
-ivstem
that sidesteps the usual
^
broad chapters fili^^
sweeping developments, in whose overlapping trei. '«
an artist's individuality may become lost. Instead he
gives us shorter sections that provide close looks at
the talents, schools, and generations of artists from
whose
scintillating creativity
Renaissance
came what we now
call
This presentation keeps continuous
the history and local traditions of each area, vet follows
the paths of artists and patrons back and forth across
the
map
art.
We
of Europe.
see the
or one period in a long-lived
work of one
artist's
his
a
great artist
and 527 gravure illustrations
Other unusual features include sup-
plementary notes identifying all works mentioned but
not illustrated and a four-page foldout chronological
chart in two colors bringing together all the artists
in the book. An extraordinarily useful bibliography,
citing over
500 writings
in English,
ranges from
studies of wide scope to important books
on
specific subjects.
and articles
Complete with three endpaper
this is a book of unprecedented
maps and a full index,
range and caliber.
The Library of An
editorship of
Western an
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paired, con-
artists
Sixty colorplates
text.
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Wevden, Gior-
of art in Antwerp.
enrich the
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artist,
trasted, or grouped; a bird's-eye view of portraiture;
single important events in Florence, or the high
moment
L
career; the role
of a great patron; the influence of
— Michelangelo, Rogier van der
gione— on
contemporaries;
D
HiMory, prepared under the general
H.W. Janson, presents the history of
in five volumes, devoted respectively to
the .Ancient world, ihe Middle Ages, the Renaissance,
the Baioque, and v ^ Modern world.
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Civic Center
709.(2)24 Gilbert
Gilbert, Creighton
History of Renaissance
art: painting, sculpture,
architecture throughout
Europe
709.024 Gilbert, Creighton
History of Renaissance art, painting,
sculpture, architecture throughout Europe.
H. N. Abrams [n.d.]
illus. (part col.), chart (fold.),
460p.
maps.
(The Library of art history)
,ll4Amhp.0UNTY LIBRARV
BibI
1. Art, Renais
Title
/
r.W 2/73
I
sance
-
Hist.
72-4791
I.
HISTORY OF RENAISSANCE ART
,#UH!V
^i Mir
I
DATE DUE
^^4
(
,^
Civic Center
709.024 Gilbert
Gilbert, Creighton
History of Renaissance
art: painting, sculpture,
architecture throughout
Europe
709.024 Gilbert, Creighton
History of Renaissance art, painting,
sculpture, architecture throughout Europe.
H. N. Abrams [n.d.]
illus. (part col.), chart (fold.),
460p.
maps.
(The Library of art history)
Bibft4^Whp.0UNTY
1. Art, Renais
Title
/
LW 2/73
V
LIBRARY
sance
-
Hist,
72-4791
I,
HISTORY OF RENAISSANCE ART
,*H«IV'
DATE DUE
LIBRARY OF ART HISTORY H.
HARRY
N.
\V.
ABRAMS,
JAXSOX
GENERAL EDITOl
INC.,
NEW YORK
History of
RENAISSANCE
ART
PAINTING
throughou
•
SCULPTURE
•
ARCHITECTURE
-EUROPE
crei(;hton gilbert
Professor of Art and Chairman of the Department of Art,
Queens College of the City University of New York
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The
essential precondition for writing a
book of
this sort,
a period of time without other obligations or distractions,
was provided
to
me by
Brandeis University in the form of a
sabbatical year, and by
Harvard University
Kress Fellowship for use at
at Villa
I
its
Tatti, Florence. It
record here
and equally
my
is
Center
for
in the
form of a
Renaissance Studies
satisfying to
be able
to
thanks to these institutions,
to Silvia
Menchi.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Gilbert, Creighton.
History of Renaissance
art:
painting
.
sculpture
.
architecture throughout Europe.
(The Library of
art history)
Bibliography: p.
L .\rt. Renaissance
N6370.G45 1973
ISBN 81(I9-Ill(i9.2
— History.
709'.02'4
L
Title.
72-4791
Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 72-4791
rights reserved. No part of the contents of this book may be
reproduced without the written permission of the publishers
Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York
Printed and bound in Japan
.All
Editor's Preface
The
present book
is
one of
a series.
Ihe Library
Cxjiuinental universities long before
it
did in Eng-
of Art History comprises a history of Western art
in five volumes, devoted respectively to the Ancient
land and America. That this imbalance has
now
been righted
due
World, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque and Rococo, and the Modern World. The
in
hoped, will help to bridge a gap of long
set, it is
pan
and the
minds.
One-volume
professionals.
for
literature written
histories of art, if
they are to be books rather than collections of essays,
must be
—and
usually are
—
work of a
the
single
institutes
No
other
every phase of
ist,
it
by contrast,
lar field
with equal assurance.
as a rule deals only
The
special-
with his particu-
of competence and addresses himself to
other specialists. The Library of Art History
between these two extremes; written by leading
in
scholars,
it is
designed for students, educated
men, and scholars
to
fits
in other fields
who do
lay-
not need
be introduced to the history of art but are looking
for
an authoritative guide to the present
knowledge
in the
state of
major areas of the discipline.
become a
group. Their numbers reflect
In recent years, such readers have
large
and
significant
the extraordinary growth of the history- of art in
our system of higher education,
in the
a
growth that began
1930s, was arrested by the
Second
VV'orld
War and its aftermath, and has been gathering ever
greater momentum since the 1950s. Among humanistic
disciplines, the history of art
is still
something
of a newcomer, especially in the English-speaking
world.
Its
early development, from Vasari (whose
famous /,iuf.5 were
first
published in 1550) to Winck-
celmann and WolfBin, took place on the Continent, and it became a formal subject of study at
modern
roam so widely
none conveys as
us to
through historic time and space,
ent, or of kinship within the family of
and sculpture strike us
on
chief reason, however,
strong a sense of continuity between past and pres-
graphic span of the subject, no one, however conto write
The
field invites
over,
and hard-working, can hope
migration" of scholars and
the special appeal of the history of art for
author. In view of the vast chronological and geo-
scientious
is
from Germany, Austria, and
Italy thirty years ago.
is
body of specialized
to the "cultural
research
standing: that between one-volume histories of art
large
—indeed, more than righted —
compared
man.
to literature or music,
as far
.More-
painting
more respwnsive vessels
of individuality; every stroke, every touch records
the uniqueness of the maker,
the conventions he
may have
no matter how
strict
to observe. Style in
the visual arts thus becomes an instrument of dif-
unmatched subtlety and precithe problem of meaning in
the visual arts, which challenges our sense of the
ambiguous. A visual work of art cannot tell its own
story unaided. It yields up its message only to persistent inquiry that draws upwn all the resources of
ferentiation that has
sion.
There
is,
finally,
cultural history, from religion to economics.
this
is
no
less
And
true of the remote past than of the
twentieth century
—
if
we
are to understand the
origins of nonobjective art, for instance,
we must
be aware of Kandinsky's and Mondrian's profound
interest in theosophy.
The work of the art
historian
thus becomes a synthesis illuminating every aspect
of
human
experience.
Its
wide appeal
is
hardly sur-
prising in an age characterized by the ever greater
specialization
and ft-agmentation of knowledge.
The Library of Art History was conceived
sponse to this growing demand.
in re-
H. W.fansou
memoriae
Katharinae Gilbert
artis historiam
SCRIBENDI
MAG
I
S
TRAE
Author's Preface
book such as this is predeterThere is an assemblage of objects, most of them inevitable choices, and the rest
one hopes chosen well. There is the recording of eleNearly everything
mined by
in a
the topic.
mentary information about them, which one hopes
is accurate. There is the exploitation of the sequence
of objects to offer
And
—the
how
reading of
a
reason for doing
the history went.
this
all
—there
is
the
constant attempt to answer the reader's challenge:
"Why
is
this
supposed
be g{X)d?"
to
or, to say the
same thing in a slightly more sophisticated way, to
offer comprehension of the interesting circumstance
that the history of art
itly
than anywhere
is
else,
with
in the usual course
its
an analytical table of contents.
The
record of the size of each work illustrated,
in feet or inches,
is
another departure from precethose that do
Some books provide none, and
dent.
seem customarily
to tell the sizes of
movable paint-
and sculpture and the plans of buildings, but
ings
not of frescoes, architectural sculpture, or building
There seems no
heights.
rational basis for such dis-
crimination, and a good reason to give
physical
Readers, even
if
they have seen
many
only a minority have, will not hold their
as
This book also contains a few aspects that are
not predetermined and are novel. They may induce
complaints, and are mentioned here so that it shall
at least not be supposed that they were done without
curately in visual
memory; no one
result in classes
that sizes tend to gravitate
The most
obvious
is
the abolition of
a
is
median, given by the
size
sizes.
all
of the works,
ings of their value interlock.
consideration.
do
not want. For those not using the book in a course,
the small parts may be convenient in the manner of
a point where,
more explicthings and our feel-
The
review textbook.
small parts also permit people to skip what they
sizes ac-
The
really does.
toward
of a slide projection.
The
records of sizes can help to draw the reader back
from that sensuous experience to the original.
It is
be used (perhaps in
objected that most people do not readily grasp in
cases) by students in courses, this is ba.sed on
opinion that in textbooks chapters are inappropriate, and are an empty structure taken over from
the mind's eye a visual equivalent for figures like
chapters. .Since the
book
will
most
my
other kinds of books.
On
characteristically avoided
the one hand, they are
when
a teacher asks stu-
dents to read certain parts of several chapters,
a.s
he
62"
X 48", and
this
is
But on the other hand
true.
classes students constantly ask their teachers
big
is
that?" (and get vague answers). If the figures
are at hand, the questioner can be
drawn out
a grasp of such equivalency, which
is
The
tradition of not giving sizes in books
harm when
that
some have been quite hard
printed here (notably for frescoes) are
The arrangement
lished figures, perhaps the
book
is
meant
to
fit
the
am
of classes. Each of the three
theme corresponding to a usual
course, and is subdivided into about the same number of smaller parts as a course has meetings. Each of
book, for which
I
correspondents.
Other
these smaller parts has approximately the degree
concern
of complexity and amount of material that seem
illustrations
normal
be used
for a cla,ss session. It
as the basis for
is
hoped
that they
may
such meetings, preferably
in
such
new unpub-
one original part of the
indebted to many courteous
real circumstances
main
parts ha.s a
means
to obtain. .Some
has to pull the various things in a chapter together.
in this
to get
very satisfying.
normally does; on the other hand, they actually do
the writer invents coii'ept-S because he
in
"how
sizes
remote resources
were tracked down
as
eighteenth-century
engravings, apparently the only occurrence of such
in the
intervening centuries.
.A
half dozen
appear here unmeasured on purpose,
such as details of frescoes and project drawings of
buildings never built or since torn down, which
without
measurements.
by being read beforehand by each student (since
seem
they are indeed very short), and being used as a
One
point of departure for further enquiry, either a
information will be most welcome from readers, as
lec-
on additional related works and areas, or quesand arguments about what the students now
know. In this way niiuh more lari lie learned than
to
be
inherently
or two evaded
all
efforts.
The
missing
wrong measurements, certain
effort. (Some apparent
however, mav be due to such variations as
ture
will the correction of
tions
to
be present in
errors,
my
this
pioneer
inclusion or exclusion of bases.
the necessity in
many
cases for
On
have been concerned
the other hand,
making several
accomplishments
inter-
may well have
and the
Eng-
—
and Spanish sculpture which are
often neglected in general books on the Renaissance,
here printed
final figures
a side effect of
include various beautiful
as Pisanello's medals,
lish architecture,
mediate calculations in arithmetic between the existing resources
to
—such
because of the superficial
producing some actual
fact that the
study of them,
medium
or geography,
mistakes startlingly larger than one has allowed for
affected by the accident of
in anticipation.)
has been conducted by a separate tradition of schol-
To
present the author's
fxjtheses, not previouslv
own new
arship.
historical hy-
The
published in the literature,
final
book of this kind, and
indeed is in general a mistake. This objection does
not apply to novel critical analysis, which is wel-
wish to
come. But novel history can be presented only very
briefly, without the supporting arguments, which
artists often
is
certainly not expected in a
often
minor
have given
I
to
have preferred to omit many other minor
given notice,
who seem
to
me
to
have
—
of scholarship
say
Cosimo
Rosselli or the Master
many
them
—and
the arguments and they
of the Holy Blood, and
cannot usually
without either talent or historical interest. But
the reader.
I
may be wrong. They also
be recognized as new proposals by
have nearly always avoided novelty, ex-
cept for one category of
lieve
new hypothesis which
be-
I
unlike the others, especially suitable to a
is.
book of
this kind, likely to
writing of
likely to
it
more than
artists.
lem of the backgrounds of the art of those artists
who do not obviously belong to an ongoing tradi-
I
begin) that they steal space from some
may
greater
the prob-
be
or Johannes Junge, even to the point (and here ob-
and
is
to
even rather small personalities, say Amico Aspertini
jection
be of help to the reader. This
like
have made a point to try to evoke the specialness of
be stimulated by the
in other circumstances,
I
many
benefited unduly fi-om some accidents in the history
that the author has indeed not tested
means
I
the fact that
more attention than they may seem
artists
deserve.
departure from the obligatory that
justifs' is
Thus
I
may,
after discussing a
dozen
works by Raphael, omit the thirteenth in order to
mention one by .Aspertini, even though everyone
Area, or Griinewald, that they have no obvious pre-
would regard the thirteenth Raphael as more beautiful and interesting than the best Aspertini. My
justification is that the book is to assist the reader to
become his own guide, since something must be
own localities, or anywhere else, and
omitted. After the twelve Raphaels, he will be able
happens quite often, with
tion. It
ent, say, as Vitale
cursors in their
yet
we
da Bologna,
are not ready to call
artists as differ-
Sassetta,
them
Niccolo
dell'
great innovators.
(if
the book
make
chapter-end in which "other
Aspertini,
this
artists flourishing at
time" are listed because they are not members
of a standard school. In this book
I
have proposed
still
his
cause that
—such
as
Francesco Laurana with ,\ntonello
da Messina, or Moroni with Leoni
in the standard literature,
tionships have been
other.
I
—novel
at least
though no doubt the
mentioned
in
rela-
one study or an-
think this will also help to take these artists
out of an "other" category of catchalls and evoke
their intimate situations.
I
As those examples suggest,
have also been concerned to
show
their
case in
let
mutual stimuli more
most general books.
And
the various
freely
in the
than
media
is
the
same way,
I
and hence
somewhat analogous
a disprofxDrtionate distraction. Besides origins,
artists
its
job in the
first
to the thirteenth,
I
place) to
but would
choose to give a word to the
latter despite its inferiority.
of larger
I
doing
be in no position to make an approach to an
new theories of the stylistic origins of these and a
number of other artists, which I have labeled as
such in most cases, except when it seemed to involve
have also made novel groupings of contemp>orary
is
own approach
Their backgrounds are then either left in silence,
or, more unhappily, they are shunted into a short
cities are
map
The arrangement
in
is
which the names
printed in larger type, but not in
"London is shown larger than
but not a hundred times as large, bewould defeat the use of the map in read-
true proportion.
"Stratford
to a
"
"
I hope that in other ways what follows will serve,
good Renaissance Florentine fashion, as a helpful
broker, making the connection between the reader's
eyes and the work of art.
ing.
in
C.G.
Contents
Editor's Preface
Author's Preface
PART ONE
1.
2.
3.
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
Introduction
15
The Liberation of the Painting
Nicola Pisano
18
21
5.
22
Giovanni Pisano and Arnolfo
Cimabue, Cavallini, and Other Painters
6.
Giotto
7.
Giotto's Pupils
8.
Duccio
g.
Sculptors oi the Earlv Fourteenth Century
4.
32
37
10.
1 1
The
12.
Orcagna and His Contemporaries
13.
Barna and Traini
15.
43
Lorenzetti Brothers
46
48
49
The Eourteenth Century outside Tuscany
The Competition for the Doors of the Florence Baptistery
Painters in Florence
5
57
Late Gothic
17.
18.
60
Jacopo della Quercia
Nanni di Banco and the Young Donatello
19.
The
20.
Masaccio
21.
Fra Angelico, Uccello
22.
Domenico Veneziano, Fra Filippo
23.
The Later Donatello; Luca
24.
Alberti
82
25.
Castagno, PoUaiuolo
26.
Trends
in
27.
Trends
in Florentine
29.
39
41
16.
28.
25
29
Simone Martini
14.
ITALY
IN
62
Later Brunelleschi and Architectural Tradition: the Later Ghiberti
74
76
della
I.ippi
78
Robbia
79
89
Florentine Painting
at
Sculpture
Mid-century
at
Mid-century
97
Michelozzo and Florentine Architecture
Century
Fifteenth
Sienese Painting in the Early
100
30.
Piero della Francesca
31.
Pisanello and Jacopo Ikllini
32.
Mantegna
104
102
92
94
98
64
Ferrara
1
I
1
Pollaiuolo, \'errocchi()
1
1.1
Antonello da Messina; Francesco I.aurana
Botticelli
and Ghirlandaio
1
Perugino and Pinturicchio
Signorelli;
Italy,
123
1465-1500
126
Painters in North Italy, 1450-1500
129
Sculptors and Architects in North
1465- 1500
Giovanni Bellini
Supplementary Notes
to
1500
to Fail
Italy,
137
One
141
PARTTWo IHF HIGH RFXAISSANCF
1.
Leonardo
2.
Filippino Lippi and Piero di Cosiino
3.
Painting in Milan alter Leonardo
4.
Bramante
5.
Leonardo's Last Years
to
1500
152
156
7.
Andrea Sanso\ino; Fra Bariolomineo
9.
Andrea
I
del Sarto
he Sistine Ceiling
166
Raphael's Last Years
12.
Architecture in
13.
Giorgione
14.
Contemporaries
15.
Giulio Campagnola; Riccio
16.
Palma; Sebastiano del Piombo
17.
Ferrara and Bologna
173
Rome
177
180
Dosso and His Successors
\'oung Fitian
22.
C'orreggio
187
190
192
Pordenone
Lotto,
185
188
ig.
Savoldo,
182
of Gi(jrgioue
18.
21.
164
165
11.
20.
149
150
8.
10.
IN IIAIA'
147
Young Michelangelo
159
Young Raphael
161
6.
16
122
Melozzo da Forli
Architecture in Central
1
18
Romanino
194
196
202
23.
Michelangelo: the Medici Years
24.
Sculptors in Michelangelo's Orbit
203
205
131
Pontormo. Rosso
208
210
Beccafumi. Painiigianino
Mannerism
212
Architecture
in
Ferine del \'aga; Florentine Decoratixe Sculpture
Bronzino and His Contemporaries
214
221
Moretto and Venetian Painters of His (leneration
Mannerist Painters
in
North
226
Titian's Later \ ears
P'alconetto, Sanmicheli,
2'^2
2.S3
Palladio
Tintoretto
241
Veronese
244
Bassano, Vittoria
Michelangelo's
24;!
I. ate
Giambologna
251
254
and Fibaldi
Painters in
247
Years
Leone Leoni, Moroni
Rome and
256
Florence after 1550
Cambiaso, Barocci
Supplementary Notes
PARI THREE
229
Jacopo Sansovino
Amnianati. \'ignola
Alessi
223
224
lialv
258
260
to Part
Two
262
FHF RFNAISSAXflF OLFSIDF LIMA'
Jean Pucclle
266
French Painting. 1340-1880
268
Accomplishments aroimd Ring Charles
Claus Slutcr
\'
270
272
Broederlam and Bellechose
275
The Duke of Berry and ihe Limbourg Brothers
276
The Boucicaut Hours and the Roluui Hours: Some Cf)nclusions
Prague and
its
Following
285
Jan van Fvck: the Chent Altarpiece
Jan \an Fyck: the Other
Ihe Master of Flcmalle
Fhc
Works
2W
and
FU'iii.dle Si\k' in (ieiin.iin
Master Francke; Sieian lex liner
Rogicr
\
an der
Weyden
288
2!)0
.'0
I
f
Isewlure
2'.'!'
2!l(i
278
Rogier's Contemporaries
305
Dirk Bouts
306
Joos van Gent;
Hugo van
Geertgen
tot Sint
jean Fouquet
der Goes
308
Memling
Jans;
315
317
Avignon and King Rene
The Growing Role
319
ot Sculpture:
Hans Multscher
Nicolaus Gerhaert and Other Sculptors
German Painting and Prints in
The Wood Sculptors
33
Nuremberg and Its Sculptors
the
Wake of Rogier
Griinewald
334
346
Cranach and Altdorfer
348
Diirer Pupils and Other Painters
Holbein
352
356
Last and Remotest Extensions of Early Renaissance Flemish Painting
Bosch
367
Antwerp and
the
High Renaissance
Haarlem and Levden
Lucas
\
an Leyden
369
373
375
The Beginning of Italianate Architecture and
The Scorel Generation
385
The Hegemony of Antwerp
389
Palaces and Other Buildings in Spain
Palaces and Their Sculptors in France
Architecture in the
The
Portrait
Bruegel
Low
Sculpture
Phenomenon
394
401
405
to
Haarlem
409
Painting and Sculpture in Spain before El Greco
Greco
4
1
Supplementary Notes
Bibliographv
to Part
Three
419
423
Chronological Chart of Artists and Architects
Index
Ltit
445
of Photographic Credits
381
392
Countries, Germany, and England
The Move from Antwerp
El
328
342
Diirer
The
322
325
437
41
398
362
PART ONE
The
Early Renaissance
in Italy
SI 1-1M,K\IK\
I
\KN \()
1
IS, I'AC.KS
1
1
l-IKi
Thr Creation of Adam- iy>H
12.
Fresco, g'z"
'
i8'8". Ceiling, Sisiine
Chapel, X'atican.
*NOTE ON THE PICTURE CAPTIONS
Unless otherwise indicated, height precedes width, width precedes length or depth.
Dates of black-and-white
illustrations are included only
when fixed hv documents
or other
means
Rome
Introduction
1.
produced
In all societies works of art are
in
can be freely altered to help in expounding
rapid
human
example,
succession, nearly always echoing older ones. Skills
and
on the ways of making things and communi
it.
For
beings can be shown near each
which
are taught, attitudes evolve, agreements forni
other in very different
persist
our experience but effectively
sizes,
is
different from
states the
more important than the
claim that
The Ren-
eating statements. Quantitatively most of the results
one
are simple copies of approved older objects.
aissance does not permit such violations of outside
opposite pole, the rare mutation or rebellion
interest us most,
by
but even that
environment and,
its
works. This
why
is
it
is
less
is
the
.\i
may
ob\ iously affected
cast
on
ligiit
will
it
be defined?
sance art
vast
is
The
all
the works
number of
How should
only true definition of Renais-
made
in the period.
The
omitted from
this
lesser instances
book w'ould modify the whole effect but otdy to
small extent. The book is the definition. But
desire remains
explicit
to
through the
series of works.
accurate approach to this
the contrast between
art earlier
and
later.
an
is
if
typical that theft
they present an invisible subject, sucii as
truth.
The
in the
Middle
event
is
means
might perform
.Ages,
tlie
principle
is
it
in a pageaiit.
fidelity to the visible
world, the examples given were
again basic to the Renaissance.
human, and
that
The emphasis on
is
in
obvious contrast with the succeeding
mutation
to
modern
people
art
(from the time of Impres-
a
world and the human being
lose value.
the concern of the Renaissance with
overstated,
is
when
it
is
Sometimes
human
beings
individualism.
labeled
and most
Individual people, in portraits, are typical Renais-
negative, h\ noticing
sance images, but always secondary in the period
easiest
in the Renaissance
and
.And such a contrast can be
seen most clearly and indisputably
we choose
if
to others.
The chief sort
shown
of people,
cally at
of image
is
of a small group
afTecting each other psNchologi-
an instant of time, like a tableau of a climac-
moment
This kindof paniting received
works from the middle of the Renaissance rather
tic
than seek traces of new qualities
the label "storj" at the very begiiming of the Ren-
at
birth, or of sterile ones at the lime of
It
(see
fig.
(fig.
1)
is
the time of
its
its
death.
acceptable that Leonardo's Moiia Lisa
197)
and Michelangelo's Creulion
of
Adam
are not like typical works of the preceding
Middle Ages, the sculptures of Chartres or the
mosaics of Monreale (colorplate
to state
in the
1).
.\11
something believed by refening
four wish
to tilings
world that have been seen before. But in the
Middle
.\ges the concept believed plays a strongei
role, so that the cjualiiies
of the things in the world
aissance,
a
in a pla).
and
wa.s
defined as the most important that
painter could do. Later, types of themes were codi-
fied
and ranked, and
"stories"
were given
first
place.
.\
corollar%
status of
music
is
that, parallel to the
Gothic architecture
and again
visual arts,
encv for
all
" (ai
j
|
.Althougli
is
i
theme to standards of visual
then shown just as actors, even
^
'
f
God
sionism, say), in which both fidelity to the visible
merely as a guide
The
is
as/
a
have the definition given an
formidation, even
see, as in f)ortraits (it
that assimilates the
we speak of the art ol tlie Renaissance,
fact that we name a period implies an
opinion that a large mutation occuiTed.
it.
creating man, they are required to find a
be
VV'hen
the very
Either the artists must report just!
when
problem.
a
on
uses a convention agreed
it
being true to
.Middle -\ges practicallv excluded portraits), or,
anywhere after ca\e painting; the
keep looking back one more step is
based on the reasonable suspicion thai
other.
reality; at most,
what they
ob\ iously, by existing
so absurdly hard to begin
a history of art
temptation to
is
dominant
in controlling
other
modeni
tend-
parallel to the
the arts to "aspire to the condition of
Walter Pater said
aissance written at
in
an essay on the Ren-
the time of Impressionism),
15
\
we may think
of the arts of the Renaissance affected
by the conditions natural
to the
drama.
We
might
much unlike the Middle Ages
and the nineteenth century, literature in the High
Renaissance and the Baroque in Europe makes
the drama its greatest vehicle. But before that hapalso notice that, %'ery
human
pens the dramatic imagery of
situations
is
and sculpture, just
as the device of perspective sets up a stagelike environment for human events in painting first and
central to the greatest painting
in the
drama
A
later.
second corollary might be that
in the
Ren-
architecture,
where
painting, where,
have to locate
istic
that
it
in
if
had certainly been before, to
any single place, we would
receive architectural
But
tions.
There
sometimes by default assimilated
a
is
to
one of the oth-
between, combines the
distinct, and, halfway
is
more advantageous aspects of both. He is a celebrity
within society, and is comparable to the trial lawyer
or architect today, a professional sought out by usually rich clients to serve their
He
personality.
genuinely
is
ends by articulating
often the
is
more famous
idiosyncrasies, but his imagination
used tohelp the client. Today we would
not expect the lawyer to "express himself' in a case,
decline in the
nor, usually, the architect,
for the
Theological (or the Encyclopaedia Brilan-
nica), but there
breakup of the Holy Roman
Empire, of the universal Catholic Church, and of
an outsider's
A
him.
is
and the Renaissance artcommitted to his society;
standpoint would not have occurred to
likewise was entirely
ist
Renaissance work such
mirror of
a
its
as the Sistine
sented by a powerful personality (like Picasso); or
we may turn
more modest, limited-application tools. Conversely new Renaissance concerns
national states
of a shared ideology (unlike Picasso's)
matching language
of an
into
—
areas, exploration of the
non-
—
European world, banking and accounting typically
failed to produce matching theoretical formula-
common
soon after in the seven-
teenth century, the great age for philosophical and
scientific systems in
The
problems of observation and experience
(Leonardo da
greatest in-
Renaissance are excited about
of the
tellectuals
our culture.
—
in nature
X'inci), politics (Machiavelli), social
behavior (Castiglione), ethics (Erasmus), contemporary history (Guicciardini)
either not at
purposes.
all
Coming back
to images,
that even the rejection of the
of people by
sizes,
feudal system,
when we
we have
in
medieval classification
along with the rejection of the
part of such a tendency.
is
praise
someone
mind
Today
"Renaissance man,"
as a
his versatile
or knowledge, and imply that
The
we might surmise
command
it is
of skills
to his public.
Today
there
is
wide-
spread understanding of the status of medieval
16
around and
artist
who
is
and works more
himself, but
we
this
resent
We
committed
it is
the statement
made by
may be
to his social structure
are inconsistent in this;
him
a
suspicious
for his patron's interest than for
raise such a question
would
say
he did anything
if
we do not
with the lawyer, and indeed
motivation in Renaissance
else.
art
is
To accept
easier
if
we
avoid an unhistorical uni\ersalizingofourown habits
for other ages, in the
way
that anthropology has
taught us not to apply our attitudes to other civilizations of the present.
Western history
ience
is
usually divided for conven-
into ancient, medieval,
Western
and modern, but
art history into ancient, medieval, Renais-
sance-Baroque, and modern. This apparently
trivial
difference allows us to deduce that Renaissance art
coincides with early
sance
art,
modem
which today
is
history.
Thus
Renais-
superseded, begins along
with the beginning of social patterns that are
still
quite ordinary and taken for granted, such as the
not unified.
career of the Renaissance artist shows a
changed relation
this
celebrity (unlike Chartres).
—which they organize
or into small schemes for immediate
Ceiling
time (like Chartres), but one pre-
the international monop>oly of the Latin language
tions of the kind so
out-
The posiknown and
not of a shift
no Renaissance equivalent
is
familiar
bohemian
tion of the Renaissance artist, less well
more he has
value given to all-embracing svstems and organiza-
Summa
We are also
artist, a
side social networks yet often a celebrity.
the
it
compared to dentists or
with the nineteenth-century
and sculptors
commissions, and not the re-
may be better to think
from one medium to another but of a
verse.
the most successful might be
own
painters
but neither rank-
social position
instrumental musicians today.
his
many Renaissance
respect
ing high nor expected to express their personalities;
seems character-
in the later age. It
it
who might command
mastery of the specialty, with an estab-
and secure
lished
ers,
aissance the lead in the visual arts changes from
skilled craftsmen
ists,
for their
art-
dominance of the
city, capitalist
economics, and
the nation-state. This correlation between a past
art
and
a surviving culture
is
confirmed bv the well-
known
dissociation between
society.
The
modern
art
and our
surviving social arrangements can be
pothesis
The
helpfully correlated with qualities in Renaissance
such as visual realism,
art
human
emphasis, and
Such general connections are in part stimulating but in part quite arbitrary, and their difficulty
is
illustrated
Some
certainly be challenged, but
it
Renaissance begins
at
quite different
times in various places, and in the same place
tually over in Italy
Where
England.
it
sug-
problem.
begin sooner in one art than in another.
the key role of small social groups.
roque.
would
gests the nature of the
when
it
It
it
was
may
vir-
became established
was born, in
Italy,
it
in
was built
by the awkward position of the Ba-
up through strange explosions and obscure modula-
comments have im-
tions even while artists accepted older postulates.
of the preceding
may collide
plied that the important mutations occurred at the
Where
end of the .Middle .\ges and then at the beginning
of modern art. In such a case, Baroque would be
reduced to a subdivision of the Renaissance, and
discordantly with local ways or reach compromise
this
approach has sometimes been used by
torians,
true that
It
some of the Renaissance innovations
seemed
to define
in the
Baroque
a
art his-
though deoeasingly by recent ones.
narrow
made famous
that
best live on, scarcely modified,
it
age.
level,
is
in
The
modifications occur on
devices
of
style,
like
those
since 1890 by the art historian Hein-
it
arrives mature, as an impwrt,
accommodations
may be
that a
in a place
strongest.
in
Byzantium and
and Byzantine
the other hand,
then and
depth emphasis.
And on
social
a
broader
changes take
creators.
It
happen
it
now
thin;
French
continued
to feel
were no improvement.
On
has to be admitted that the .Mid-
were provincial
."^ges
ful
same time, major
its
likely to
and remained
late
artists naturally
that the different ways
dle
level, at the
is
in France, the Renaissance either
never came or came
and Ba-
tion, surface or
would puzzle
where the old culture had never been at
Where the .Middle .\ges were greatest,
its
roque painting, such qualities as relatively smooth
or sketchy brushwork, resolved or continuing ac-
rich Wolfflin's principles of Renaissance
that
mutation in culture
it
in Italy,
however meaning-
to a local public,
and however
many talented individuals were at work. To look at
the Romanesque in Lombardy and then in Burgundy
is
to accept this. .\nd in the
odd ways
in
which
place, the climax of absolutism symbolized by Louis
medieval Italian art has special powers, we may some-
XIV and Versailles and the climax of philosophic
and scientific theory already mentioned. If we relate
these great changes in peoples lives and ideas with
times with hindsight see that irregularities were
sance. .An easy instance of this
the relatively slight changes in the character of the
all
visual arts,
we might
giving the arts
of
life
less
infer that the
Baroque age was
of a role in articulating
its
sense
than the Renaissance had done. Such a hv-
involved that were helpful in nurturing the Renaisis
the fact that,
among
Romanesque sculpture, only in
Italy are the chief monuments usually signed by
their artists and rarely anonymous. This takes us
to the Italian towns, and their adornment.
the schools of
17
The
2.
A
painting
Liberation of the Painting
nearly always a portable rectangular
is
object; the point seems to us too obvious to mention.
But such objects played a very small role
painting.
A
seem
tine pattern that
But
cult objects.
(colorplate
in
medieval
few can be found, small icons of Byzan-
i),
if
to
have been treated
we think
the exainples
as rare
of medieval painting
we
turn out
cite often
to be in other "pictorial" media, like mosaic or en-
amel, and almost always are on surfaces larger than
themselves: pages of books, small valuable objects
such as the utensils of rituals, and walls of buildings.
The same
true of sculpture, which
is
tectural or, in small scale,
kets,
and the
like. It
is
either archi-
is
on ivory book
covers, cas-
the Renaissance that detaches
painting and sculpture, and works with paintings
sculptures. Of course it is attractive to think of
medieval painting and sculpture, integial parts of
and
larger wholes, as symbolic of the feudal hierarchy
or of other medieval wholes.
becomes
free, like
The detached painting
may now become
the ex-serf who
a capitalist.
Separate paintings become a significant vehicle
of painting at a specific place and time: in some
towns of Tuscany,
century.
Some
in central Italy, in the thirteenth
of these same towns later
places where, for the
become
the
Nu
time, artists can be dis-
first
S,
..o.
Panel, 9'9"
.
Martino. Pisa
who are personalities, with biographies and
And still later Florence, one of these towns,
covered
styles.
creates the self-conscious theory of the Renaissance.
Since the works of these
first artist
separate paintings, and the
personalities are
P'lorentine
first
of art are too, we seem to have here a true
tial
— beginning,
start.
These
a context
where
it
is
—
works
if
par-
plausible to
early paintings are not actually Renais-
are
its
still
own
executed on a carpentered structure with
character, but
coincide in
cifixes.
size:
now
carpentry and painting
the most frequent objects are cru-
These of course existed
bronze sculptures.
Now
before, often as small
over-lifesize painted cruci-
sance works, but an odd mutation within the Middle
fixes
Ages
survive from the thirteenth centui7, and one or two
—minor
for all
medieval purposes, but impor-
tant for the future Renaissance.
the
first
to use paintings as
its
Within
this context,
vehicle, the
first
ings are not rectangular, as paintings later
(apparently because this shape
is
paint-
became
lines at
first
from the twelfth (suggesting
are complex, which seems to
fit
in
with
had long been
The
from being painted on larger
or toes.
paintings
new-
a possible choice).
paintings are in a style provincially de-
As copies, they enhance the Byzantine tendelicy
work
The
many
upon what
rived from Byzantium, the great p)ower to the East.
the fact that these paintings are only one step away
objects.
that, like
things in history, this was an emphasis
neutral, the shape
most nearly avoiding any significance). Their out-
appear in Tuscan churches; a hundred or so
in
to
formulas for everything, eyes, hair, rib cage,
The purpose
is
not to render a body, but.
commonly
orthe interest of heretical groups. The
der he founded
felt
continuous
stress
between
his
image and its growing institutionalization,
its
and that may be evoked in this altarpiece, with
ascetic
relative
medieval hierarchy of parts expressing the
yet
importance of areas within the totality, while
forms
central figure speaks through its stylized
the
of tense asceticism.
the
drama of
Christ's
life.
his
The
life,
smaller parts are scenes of
on crucifixes are of
as those
Painted altarpieces were soon to becrucifixes, encouraged by
come more common than
change in the rules of the Mass. Priests earlier
but
had faced congregations from behind the altar,
now everyone faced the altar. This stimulated the
a
and
placing of an object of reverence on the altar,
that each
in the next century church law required
cany an identification of the saint to whom
was consecrated. .\n image was the readiest way
altar
it
of meeting this need.
Both the Saint Krancis altarpiece and the Pisa
Lamentation,
3,
from
Cross
No. 20
(fig. 2)
Cross
communicate by vai7ing the
to classify degiees of
importance
sizes
—
a
of the parts
device that to
we have it in other visual connewspaper headlines, where we, as the
us seems odd, though
like other religious icons, to
of symbols
cessful
learned by an apprentice
is
when he
—
who
A
is
set
texts such as
suc-
repeats his master (like an appren-
tice electrician today),
resembling
induce worship.
like
and
it
communicates without
the
words,
most commonplace
of symbols.
A series of crosses painted in Pisa in the early
thirteenth century includes one of the most beautiful (fig. 2).
seems to
wood,
as
The anonymous painter's unusual
finesse
having painted not directly on the
usual, but on parchment, the standard surhis
fit
face for illustrations in books.
This prepares us for
and curved
the expressive strength in the sw^eeps
silhouettes of the small
mourning
figures
(fig.
3),
but not perhaps for the similar power in the large
Christ, with zigzag patterns in large
as well as
small folds.
The
body eleinents
bent head and closed
eyes, in contrast to the upright
head and open eyes
of most painted crucifixes of the period, suggest that
the connection between rhythmic pattern and hu
man
pathos
is
purposeful.
In nearby Lucca, Bonaventura Berlinghieri,
whose father had also been a painter, executed in
and
1235 the remarkable altarpiece of Saint Francis
scenes from his life (fig. .}). The saint (1182- 226) had
1
accomplished an exceptional infusion into the established Church of an evangelical poverty, more
4.
BoNAVt.N rcRA Berlinghieri. .Murpiccc
1235. Panel. 60" x 46'.
>
Si. Francis.
5.
Francesco, Pescia
19
Middle Ages did, use design
to transmit social in-
formation. Therefore in realistic images of the Renaissance the range of information
while within the
A
tell-tale
nanower span
is
much
reduced,
the accuracy
rises.
modification appears in an artist of
Pisa in the next generation,
Giunta Pisano
vention (and by the necessities of carpentry) at the
ends of the crossbars.
Thus Giunta
insists in several
ways that we must be shown only what we could
see at
one time, abolishing elements whose
relationship
is
man who might
be
artist in history, in that
we
All this seems suitable in a
(docs.
inter-
through meaning.
1229-1255), whose crucifixes do away with the small
called the
naiTative compartments.
The panel shape remains
now free is given to the sideways writhing motion of Christ's body (fig. 5). The
can see several of
the same, and the area
thing of his biography as well, specifically that he
negative suppression of systematic divisions of the
Assisi,
painting coincides with the positive enhancement
Francis' death,
of expressiveness in the physical body.
The
eyes are
on the expressive
line pat-
tern in the face, with the exaggerated lids.
The only
closed and the focus
is
traveled
in
known
his
works and that we know some-
away from Pisa
which was
north
name
first
Italy.
to
work elsewhere
—
to
a place of pilgrimage after Saint
and
to
Bologna over the mountains
(Earlier
we have no more than
a
signed to a work, perhaps with a date, and
sometimes
a
second work with the same signature.)
other people are Mary and John, persons suitably
Physical existence seems to be asserted in both his
present at the Crucifixion and both painted on a
life
scale closer to Christ's,
Giunta Pisano.
5.
Panel. io'4"
S.
Cross. 1250.
g's".
Domcnico, Bologna
20
though they remain by con-
and
his paintings,
but the crucifixes are
still
variations within the Byzantine formulas of style.
3-
A
Nicola Pisano
generation later Pisa welcomed an
could develop these potentials
cause he
of
style.
much
artist
who
further, be-
commanded remarkably varied vehicles
The sculptor Nicola Pisano (docs. 1258-
came from southeastern Italy, but it is only
we know him. The first
of his complex projects is the marble pulpit for the
Baptistery
259; fig. 6). Both in Tuscany and south
1278)
after his arrival in Pisa that
(
Italy pulpits
Nicola Pisano.
7.
1
Marble, height
15'.
Pulpit
1265-68.
Cathedral, Siena
had traditionally been among the ob-
on which sculpture was applied. In Nicolas
work the energy of the figures and the decreased
weight of the frames make his scenes no longer sub-
jects
ordinate elements rigidly enclosed, but of equal
importance with the entire object.
He
was stimulat-
ed by the figure carving of other traditions, con-
Roman tomb reliefs visible
some quantity. He absorbed the ancient
technique and their control of organic
But
cause
in Pisa in
folds
sculptors'
at
most, been literally copied in some earlier medieval
sculpture (especially in south Italy).
ed the relations of the
He
also adopt-
figures in space typical of
work
France. His
own
him to understand
High Gothic in
time.
especially resembles the recent
sculpture on Reims Cathedral, approachable be-
spicuously the ancient
mobile forms of the body, which until then had,
his curiosity also led
the greatest art of his
it too had borrowed Roman ways of carving
and other devices. Yet his relationship to
Reims seems
lel
ple
inventive
move
to
be not that of a copyist, but a paral-
jump from
the
Roman
base.
in active shifts of direction
His peo-
and surface
angles, as in Reims, but, held inside small reliefs,
much closer interaction, creating incidents
The stocky figures, dense in volume, are
with
these tombs, resulting in a dense packing of active
of drama.
torsos against a shallow wall.
intense in expression. All this
his
( 1
second pulpit,
265-68;
fig. 7).
among each
for the
The
more inarked
in
figures are smaller
and weave
other like snakes, evoking the pressures
of the Biblical epic of the
swarming
is
Cathedral of nearby Siena
life
we
life
of Christ. In their
are no longer conscious of the slab
sides of the pulpit.
Nicola
his last
is
most
literally affected
by France in
work, the large city fountain for Perugia
(finished
1278).^
In general his style might best
be labeled "Italian High Gothic." a parallel to the
other contemporary variations on France found in
Germany. His standing
his
in the international art of
age has been obscured by the traditional con-
cepts that classicism
a "I.ate Gothic,"
is
and
mi-Gothic. that Italy has only
that Nicola
is
mainly
ing as a trailblazer of (he Renaissance.
a
standard
major
r
X-..,
W5y. Maible, 33
\.,,','-,/.,|'.'nrl,.|,,ni,„l
st
for
sculpture in central
He
Italy,
interest-
created
and the
ulptois of the next generation were trained
in his shop.
^44'- Baptisiery, Pisa
21
Giovanni Pisano and Arnolfo
4-
Nicola Pisano's son Giovanni
produced
so
may perhaps be
and
known Gothic
called the greatest
He had
sculptor.
1265-1314)
(docs.
greatest Italian Gothic sculpture,
tiie
the advantage of training in his
busy workshop, where his personal style is
thought to have emerged, when he was about seventeen, in the Siena pulpit. Today it seems strange to
father's
think of
a
major
father, tiiough
inheriting his art ftom his
artist
we know
upbringing may
that such
be a real advantage to professionals such as architects (e.g., Eero Saarinen^), whose relationship
still
environment
to their social
sance
is
similar to
tlie
Renais-
Only
about
at
thirty-five,
when
his father
died, did Giovanni leave the workshop.
on he headed
a still larger
had
From then
shop, producing two rich
series of lifesize statues for the outside of Siena Ca-
thedral (1287-95;
(from
1297).''
weather,
fig-
8)
P'*3 Baptistery
3™^ 'h^
damaged by
Since these are badly
we have
Renaissance
the
problem
artists) that
(as
with
many
other
we know some kinds of his
work much
better than other kinds. Giovanni's
small figures
and pulpits are better known, but the
ruined huge statues
at
Siena magnificently illustrate
his expression of tension
on
a scale of
monumental
grandeur, a fundamental inheritance for Donatello
and Michelangelo. In all sizes they are elastic, pulled
from end
to
Gothic qualities
in the Siena pulpit
been interpreted
as the
tion, but
end with
a stress that their faces siiow,
but also blockily cut, with a weightiness that makes
are Gothic in
it
have therefore
young Giovanni's contribu-
seems more likely that the father pio-
neered the exploration of French inethods.
Giovanni was given Sienese citizenship, and
all the work on the Cathedral.
was the overseer of
The
was
sculptor-architect combination
a matter of cutting stones
all
is
common
none other
The
and the
in
in Italy, his
surface
is
statues are
method
is
it
not very architec-
frosted with carved
hooked on
like hats
ornament,
on
a rack,
an unexpected rhythm. The dynamic punctua-
tion
is
not structurally ordered.
more
It is
so in the
pulpit for .Sant',\ndrea in Pistoia (finished 1301;
figs. 9, 10),
using Nicola's old Siena scheme, but the
excitement here
is
all in
the carved scenes. Small
on each other, all shaped like
lengths of thick rope, swerving and intertwining.
Typical carriers of drama are stretched arms, like
the nurse's to the water basin and Herod's in comforceful figures act
mand. Heads
press forward to learn answers, like
the Virgin's as she
Cathedral
Pisa
sits in
A
bed.
(1302-10;
fig.
second pulpit, in
11),
caiTies
these
qualities to a shrill extreme, partly in assistants'
copying of the master's external
own
traits,
but also in his
work. Bodies are elongated and sway like ques-
tion marks, twisted figures
make
their points by
sccxjped-out shadows, tendons are thinned
1^^
—
—but though Gio-
vanni enriches the cathedral front with statues like
tonic.
artist's.
They
US take their feelings seriously.
every way, with none of Nicola's classicism; the
down
single lines. Yet in the large supporting figures
to
below
the reliefs, Giovanni abruptly offers upright people
i^i
8.
GiovA.NNi Pisano.
Sibyl,
from facade of
squarer in outline, as he does again in his
Siena Cathedral. 0.129"
Marble, height 6'3".
Museo dell'Opera
Ounmr,. Siena
del
made
Madonna
Arena Chapel frescoed by a
young artist, Giotto (see p. 29). The firmer and
milder carving may show a magnetism toward the
(fig.
12)
younger
ther's
for the
artist's
achievement, or a return to his
fa-
methods, or an intended distinction between
in relief and full round columnar statues.
But the variation may also be related to the complaints of abuse and misunderstanding that Giovan-
dramas
ni carved
onto the Pisa pulpit
he shared the nervous
itself,
suggesting that
stress of his works.
Giovanni Ph
'.
panel of pulpit. 13&!. Marble, 33'. 40
S.
Andrea. Pistoia
II.
Giovanni PiSANO.
Pulpit. 1302-11.
Marble, height n'2': width of each panel 43"
Cathedral, Pisa
;o
IjtOVANNI PiSANO.
San:T'_y.
panel of pulpit. 1301. Marble. 33" X40'
S.
Andrea,
Pistoia.
12.
Giovanni Pisano. Madomu
md Child.
Marble, height 63". Arena Chapel. Padua
serving, like the marginal anecdotes in Gothic
man-
uscripts, as small vivid labels for the structure.
They
are unforgettable images of thirst, stretching their
necks like turtles out of their cubic bodies.
They
express yearning as intensely as Giovanni does, but
not wirily. Arnolfo's figures are architectonic, or
stonemason's people, and
meaning
to
younger
this alternative
artists.
ginal gioup of Arnolfo's
is
tomb of Cardinal de Braye
had great
Another haunting marcomplexly built
in his
fig. 14), where
two angels pull curtains aside and let the ends sweep
around their bodies like lassos. Action initiated by
human
it
Arnolfo di Cambio. Thirsting Woman.
13Marble, 14" X 21" x 1".
acts
intelligence
1282;
(d.
interlocked with the material
is
upon, while the two are clearly distinguished
by texture.
1
In 1300 (for certain, and perhaps earlier) the
Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria, Perugia
elderly Arnolfo was
made
Arnolfo
di
Cambio
other brilliant assistant,
(docs. 1265-1300), Nicola's
left
the shop soon after the
Siena pulpit was done. Although a citizen of Florence, he lived most of his
more often
first
as
Rome, working
an architect than Giovanni did.
see his sculpture clearly in
dinary figures about 1280
from
in
life
(fig.
We
two small, extraor-
13).
Some fragments
a fountain in Perugia (apparently a small
one
near Nicola's big one) include people on their knees
crouching and pushing
to drink, low-class
images
honored by Florence by being
its recently begun new CaWhat definitely survives of his work there
from much debate as to how far the later
the overseer for
thedral.
(apart
building of the Cathedral retains his plans)
is
and
a
and holy
figures with
the same hulking
volume
again lean forward in eager dramatic contact, a
mulation that became fundamental
artists
that
despite the obsolescent
remain
ties to
architecture
in all Arnolfo's carving.
14.
Arnolfo
Effigy
and Angels,
di
Marble, 32"
S.
Cambio.
15.
Arnolfo
di
Cambio.
from facade of Florence Cathedral.
1300-1302. Marble, length 67" (destroyed
Formerly Kaiser Friedrich Museum,
Berlin
-^
95".
Domenico, Orvieto
for-
to Florentine
from tomb of Cardinal de Braye
Death of the Virgin,
again
much of it done under his supervision
few figures by his own hand (fig. 15). Angels
the sculpture,
Cimabue,
5-
The
at
first
work
Cavallini,
is
found
(docs.
1260-
personality in Florentine painting
in 1260.
Coppo
di
Martovaldo
Giunta Pisano before him,
1274), like
and Other Painters
com-
is still
pletely Byzantine in his stylistic allegiance, not at
all classical
more
or Gothic like the sculptors.
He
even
is
Giunta had been by mosaic,
affected than
that
most Byzantine of media, and replaces highlights
on cloth
show of
folds
by gold lines
rich materials
(fig.
ifi).
This
stylized
reminds us of craftsmanship
and of the high rank of the Virgin who wears them
thus medieval on two levels. It also reinforces Cophandwriting, which tends to thick
po's personal
color in bright units, wide dark contours,
derlined shadows,
all
richness appears in
at the
assertions of bulk.
anonymous
painters in Florence
same time, the masters of the Bardi Saint
Francis altarpiece^ and of the
piece.^
and un-
Such heavy
Coppo was taken
Magdalene
altar-
prisoner by the Sienese in
and then painted an altarpiece in
one of the two almost identical ones by him
a battle in 1261,
Siena,
that survive.
da Siena,
Madonna
17.
is
''
The leading local
known from
(127
Cimabue.
1)'
Upper Church,
Crucifixion.
S.
master there, Guido
huge altarpiece of the
and other works
Fresco, about iB'g" x 23'.
Assisi
a
Francesco,
in the
now
very
16.
Coppo
Panel, 87
di
Marcovaldo. Madonna.
x 49".
S.
Maria
1261
dei Seni, Siena
Cimabues
vehicle
passionate power within
most vividly shown
is
fresco in Assisi
torted
(fig.
17),
mourners than
more
in the
this
archaic
in his Crucifixion
in the shocked, con-
undulating Christ; the
drawn forms overstate the violent feelings with an
autonomous rhythmic order. This fresco has lost
leaving only the underpaint resembling
all its color,
(as
is
always said) a photographic negative.
huge cycle (1280s)
part of a
two-story double church of Saint Francis at
a major pilgrimage center (see
fig.
It
is
upper part of the
in the
.\ssisi,
73). Fresco paint-
ing in the Middle Ages had generally been a cheap
substitute for mosaics, but was
its
own
now about
to
acquire
virtues.
Cimabue's
style
twelve-foot-high
is
better
preserved
in
Child enthroned with angels and prophets
plate 2).
appropriately majestic, but
It is
ment of Coppo
sharp
is
more remarkable.
its
(color-
amend-
pattern of
Its
including gold ones, creates tiny units
lines,
everywhere, on the big throne and the cloth
producing
his
.Madonna and
altarpiece of the
folds,
a very refined surface, like filigree or
cobwebs, even in the incised gold background. Peri8.
CiMABUE.
I4'8"x i2'io"
Crois. Panel,
haps
Museo deirOpera di S. Croce, Florence
before flood damage of 1966)
marks the giowing urbanity of an
this
artist
in Florence within the old-fashioned
methods of
drawing.
latest paint-
ing
es, a
(fig.
It is
transitional to
18), a Cnicifix in
Cimabue's
which
line almost vanish-
translucent clotii becomes a gossamer veil, and
the body
is
modeled with gentle modulations of
Standard forms of the Tuscan Bvzantine painters,
shadow. Features and
given a bright and massive celebration.
layout systems, but they have been erased from
The
greatest personality of Florentine Byzan-
tine painting
cifix that
is
is
Cimabue
(docs. 1272-1303).
A
Coppo but
servative, omitting the small scenes
is
less
is
con-
and developing
and we have
Cimabue was
cru-
probably his earliest surviving work"
painted rather in the style of
surface painting,
Byzantine
jxjse still reflect
a
modeled
tiie
real body.
certainly stimulated in this di-
Rome, a city
There Pietro Caval1273-1308) was working in two media,
rection by being aware of painting in
where he had been
lini (docs.
in his youth.
from Giunta's expressive movement. .Although the
mosaic and
lines in the face are self-assured fomiulas, the rhyth-
about their relative importance: he was basically a
mic accents of their
tight pressure refer to the
human
tragedy of death with a p>ower parallel to Giovanni
Pisano's.
While Giovanni, though, developed
real-
ism and expressiveness together, which seems natural or
even inevitable to
us,
Cimabue
unrealistic Byzantine vocabulary
retains the old
and
yet gives us a
fine-tuned statement of agony. Like Bach, he exem-
phenomenon of
who
fresco,
fresco painter,
but reversed the medieval view
who sometimes made
mosaics that
look like frescoes. In the surviving fragments of his
LaU
Jiidgmetil fresco
(fig. 19),
the bodies are organ-
isms whose fleshy forms keep turning, supported
by a blend of light and shade with no
depends on the quality of the brush
lines.
This
stroke, distinct
from mosaic cubes. But Cavallini's mosaics reveal
is
a further range of his interest in physical reality,
not involved with the avant garde but successfully
that of the spatial environinent, with parts of build-
plifies the
the great artist
works what seemed a used-up mine. This
is
possible
where the provincial environment of his place and
time makes his publit expect a traditional language.
26
ings constructed like sentry boxes to contain the
on
visible
exam-
—actually
Early
action. In all this Cavallini leaned
ples of ancient
Roman
painting
Christian painting of the fourth and
What we do
A.D.
fifth
not see in Cavallini
is
centuries
anything
beyond the physical truth of form and space; one is
tempted to think of him and Cimabue as the two
halves of a whole, natural forms without
human
But Cavallinis many lost
works may have shown more, to judge from a re-
meaning and
vice versa.
markable anonymous
Assisi
He
20).
(fig.
artist
who
painted the story of
upper chunh of Saint Francis
Isaac, again in the
"Roman" way
follows this
at
of
painting figures, with a somewhat more brittle handwriting but the same organic turning
similar buildings even a
structure. Inside
little
them the
effect, and
more complex in
figures
respond
each
to
other with grave, slowly moving gestures that seem
to
mark
evoke
rhythmic
off the space in
stresses
poignant psychological moment.
a
A
and
to
team of
painters with generally similar methods, but with
texture
still
and with jerkier gestures,
a little tinnier
rg.
PlFTRO t:AVALLISl-
ApOilltl.
portion of Last Judgment. Fresco,
painted a
little later in
the same church a huge
of frescoes of Saint Francis'
ries
cycle has benefited from
its
se-
This
life (fig. 21).
attractive subject
height of preserved frieze about
S. Cecilia.
10'.
Rome
and
conspicuous location to receive more admiration
would warrant. Indeed, two centuemerged that it was by Giotto,
who had actually supervised much work in the lower
story of the double church. This view is still often
than
its
quality
ries later the idea
now
stated, but
ifications, that
usually with two (conflicting) qualit
was a work of
he assigned large parts of
Cavallini's effect
it
on younger
part of this large cycle; he then
and
in Florence,
there after 1300
Master's
last,
ret altarpiece
ing for the
who
(fig.
soft,
makes
first
left for
22),
is
clearest
work
is
a
independent
is
the only important artist
is
also
anonymous.
most beautiful work, the
.Saint
In
the
Marga-
he underlines Cavallini's
feel-
and for lively drama
rich, glowing pigment
dignified figure,
in front of little rooms,
that
youth and that
talents
Master of Saint Cecilia. His
in the
work
his
to imitative assistants.
by a
his energetic little
people in their thin
move fluidly in a shifting air.
About 1260-80, then, a new art
drapery
itself in
Its
vehicle
is
world around
uation.
established
the merchant towns of Tuscany and nearby.
It
and tangible truth of the
and its theme is the human sitthe old vehicle oi diagrammatic
the visible
us,
rejects
layout and the old themes of hierarchical and su-
pernatural ideas which had held the emphasis in
France, Byzantium, and other centers.
tion
between
stvle
and
.societv in
The
correla-
both cases
is
not
20.
Isaac Blfssing Jacob. Fresco. lo' v lo'.
Upper Church,
S.
Francesco, Assisi
this
period a valuable study for students of social
problems.
Merchant towns appeared
Lomnew art
in Flanders,
bardy, and Tuscany; why, then, did the
appear in Tuscany only? Perhaps
realized, the suggestion of ancient
was important
in fact
first
ther
and the
and
Rome. These ma-
fashion, Nicola Pisano
Pietro Cavallini, in Pisa and in
terials
required, to be
to the first sculptor
new
painter in the
it
Roman art, which
were not available elsewhere.
why
the
in Florence
new
art
If
we
ask fur-
soon found different centers,
and Siena, we should notice
a striking
concidence: these cities were also the banking centers;
Florence in 1252 issued a gold coin which
created the gold standard basic to international
trade for the next seven centuries; Siena reaped ad-
vantages from her silver mines.
ing
The
Sienese at
first,
much
longer, did the bank-
work of the papacy, the
largest international
aTid the Florentines for
economic
activity of the period. It
is
common
to
speak of "three generations to culture," from the
business pioneer to his grandson the rich dilettante,
2
1
The
.
and there might be an analogy from the manufacturer to the banker, calling the latter a more sophisticated patron. However that may be, certainly
Vision of the Fiery Chariot,
from cycle of the Life of St. Francis.
Fresco, 9' x 7'i".
Upper Church,
S.
Siena (around
1300)
and Florence
(in
the early
Francesco, Assisi
fourteeiuh century and then in the fifteenth) led
the world simultaneously in just two activities,
banking and the visual
hard to
find.
when
the physical truths of materials and weight
they buy and
ities
arts.
Merchants must be concerned about
sell
goods, and about the
human
qual-
of salesman and customer, whether clever or
honest or the opposite. With knowledge of this kind
they and their town will prosper; otherwise they
will suffer.
man
error
on
The medieval
lord, vassal, or church-
was not anxious about such questions,
would not change
grandfather
his
s
his life.
His
slot in scKiety,
life
for
an
depended
and he was anx-
ious about the order of such slots; but that order
does not interest the merchant,
fKJor
and die
rich, or vice versa.
who may be born
The status society
has yielded to the contract society, feudal to capitalist
economics, and soon medieval art will yield
to the
Renaissance. (Of course there were some
merchants before, and some realism in Gothic
but both
role.)
now move from
The mutual
ism in this
a
marginal
help of materialism and human-
time contrasts with our frequent con-
cept of their miuual antagonism,
28
art,
to a central
and might make
22.
Master of
St. Cecilia. Martyrdom of Si.
Margaret, scene on St. Margaret Altarpiece.
Panel,
I2"x
16". S.
near Florence)
Margherita a Montici
Giotto
6.
The
ship,
Florentines, besides their other areas of leader-
dominated the
early writing of art history.
one reason why Giotto (docs. 1300-d. 1337)
has been viewed as the first artist, or, more modestly,
That
is
Byzantine formulas for
as the first painter, to leave
But the larger reason
reality.
who had
greatest artist
Giotto began
all
it
is
done
yet
that he was the
so.
(The idea
that
has also supported the view that
he painted the Assisi frescoes of Saint Francis, where
the
new
makes one of
style
earliest appearances.)
its
Giotto's close contemporary, the Florentine poet
Dante, alludes to him in the Divine Comedy, saying
had displaced Cimabue
that he
tion.
This
in art,
is
the
first
in public reputa-
record of the concept of fashion
and the remark
the fame of
itself assisted
Giotto further. Giotto's reputation led him to do
work
in
many
preserved
other
and we can
cities,
see
it
There he painted
for
Enrico Scrovegni, son of a rich
banker, a semiprivate chapel (consecrated
known
best
from home, in Padua, near Venice.
far
as the
Arena Chapel.
1305)
Its
ftescoes are a nar-
rative of the lives of Christ, His
mother Mary, and
her parents Joachim and Anna.
The
23.
Giotto. Joachim and
Fresco, 6'6"
the Shepherds.
x 6'. Arena Chapel, Padua
latter, a irovel
choice, suggests the bourgeois sense of a familygroup
with the grandparents,
in a family tree of
as against a feudal interest
noble lineage.
Detailed observation of a
few scenes
suggest Giotto's remarkable qualities.
who
Joachim,
is
thought
by God, arrives in the second scene
(fig.
is
He
23).
may
pious
has been excluded from the temple
because, a childless man, he
where he
The
to
be cursed
at a pasture
greeted by shepherds, his employees
walks in from the
left
(many of the
movement
scenes exploit the left-right
of our eyes),
and the shepherds are surprised. The moment has
no theological importance, but vivid human sentiment. Joachim's body seems massive because his
is pulled about him, with a few taut
no subdivisions. Giotto works on the sense
plain cloak
folds but
of weight
more simply and
any other
artist:
figure,
indeed,
if,
one turns one's eyes
effectively than almost
after looking at such a
to a real person, Giotto's
seem weightier because the usual distractions
of details are wiped out. The shepherds, whose
will
H-
Giotto. Lamentation.
Fresco, G'G" x
6'.
Arena Chapel, Padua
29
forms are more cut up. seem to weigh
weight
&
w1
^.1^
Thus
the use of size in the Middle Ages. Indeed, our
word "weighty" means "important." Joachim's
weight is built up through his body and seems to be
>i
Hi
less.
a device to signify importance, replacing
is
released in his bent head, where his feelings are
shown, so that
his sadness appeals to us as significant
and the material
facts
of weight and
human
feeling
have a particularly tight interrelationship. Weight
is
not shown for
its
own
sake
(it is
herds), but to convey emotion.
slight in the shep-
Joachim does not
necessarily have the higher rank, but he
is
the pro-
tagonist in the scene.
This
is
moment on
a scene in a
drama, a tableau
a stage. This
why
is
of one
as
often in Giotto
there
is
not one chief figure, but the center of the
work
is
in the interrelationship
or gioups.
and
this,
orplate
The Joachim
a classic
g).
example
The two
among two
figures
scene shows something of
is
the Kiss oJJiuUls (col-
colliding faces
and the empha-
sized gesture of the enfolding arm, reaching along
make
stretched folds from the massive cloak,
emn
the figures
is
end,
marked
is less
so strong a
The Joachim and
a
means
in the landscape
double standard in
this respect.
in
nonmaterial
to a
the Lainenlatioii
a sol-
which
instant very graphic. Materialism,
backgrounds.
(fig.
It
24)
show
disturbs us,
since our eyes expect equal realism or abstraction
throughout a visual
field, yet
we do not maintain
convention in the theater, where we see real
this
actors against a stylized backdrop. Joachim's rocky
wall
on
25.
Giotto.
AJaamna ana
Angels. Panel, io'8"
Florence
'-
Lniia tnihioned wt!h
6'8". Uffizi Gallery,
is
such a backdrop, and the three larger trees
clearly relate to the three large
it
foregound
forms (Joachim, shepherds, hut). In the Lamentalion, the diagonal outline of the hill points to, or
from, the central gioup of .Mary and Christ. As their
two
faces are the focus, the figures as they are farther
from them are
less
less
weighted, more subdivided, and
important and solemn.
The two
extraordinary
boidder-like figures seen from the back
tell
us of
their despair by the degree of sag in their simple
contours.
Of
tant
is
Giotto's panel paintings the most impor-
a large altarpiece of the
Madonna
(fig.
of the same type as Cimabue's (see colorplate
This Child, though,
ings,
is
25),
2).
not a symbolic giver of bless-
but must stretch his arm out like Giovanni
Pisano's
Herod
(see
fig. 9).
Giotto absorbed Cima-
bue's sensitivity to heroic passion,
and Giovanni
Pisano's similar control of tense emotions, along
30
.6,
Francu
Giotto. The Mnaculous Appearance oj Si.
io the
Monk,
very diffeiem expenness in paim
predecessor is Aring modelcci forms. But his truest
woman (fig. i.i)
nolfo di Cambio, whose thirsting
with Cavalliiii
comes
form.
Me.
Fresco,
'." x
,4-9". Bardi
Chapel,
Croce, Florence
S.
man
at
;.
huclosest to Giotto's sense for the essential
circumstance
To
made meaningful by weighty
be sure, Arnolfo has a stonecutters clum-
siness in interrelating figures if
we compare him
cues.
with Giotto's orchestrations of groups and si
permanent
But their common concern foretells the
legally was
essence of Florentine art. (And Arnolfo
Florentine
a Florentine, born in a village undeT
rule, though he worked mainly in Rome.)
state
Giotto's people are classics because they
simplicity,
their specific point with the most basic
telling us at
once what
it
is
and
that
it is
worth no-
other advantages
tice. All other artists, whatever
him; the simthey may have, seem elaborate beside
Picasso is
plest figure by Caravaggio or a cul)ist
much more
elaborate. Yet this applies mainly to the
was unArena Chapel. Like all great artists, Giotto
and his later work
satisfied with what he had done,
In
adds complexity, especially in the environment.
two frescoed chapels
(for great
banking families)
in
Santa Croce,'"
Florence, in the Franciscan church of
doors and
Giotto puslies his people through the
windows and screens of firmly bolted spaces
They
(fig.
lose the intense finality of a universe
26).
where
lelaxed
people are the only forces, to gain a more
upon them.
interplay with the force of the world
turn
directions in which people look, move, or
The
vehicles in which they express their
permitted
drama, restricted by the modest capacity
become the
by the enclosed space and the softening
art of
many
early strong
air.
Ihis
potential variations, rather than his
and few statements,
is
Giotto's bequest
to his successors.
31
Giotto's Pupils
7-
In Giotto's old age, in 1334, the overseers of Flor-
ence Cathedral put him in charge of building
ity,
simply because he was the most famous
enormous
the city. His
his effect
but
on younger
who
prestige
painters,
activ-
artist
of
also apparent in
is
who all
imitated him,
28.
Taddeo Gaddi. The
Annunciation
Shepherds. 1332-38. Fresco, 7'5"
each developed a small specialty within
X
4'8".
Baroncelli Chapel, S. Croce, Florence
Giotto's general procedures.
Of
is
these Bernardo
most accessible
Daddi
(docs.
to us, since relatively
1328-1348)
many
of his
works survive and have been long studied. His Ma-
donna images range from
large church altarpieces
to small panels for citizens' prayers.
is
well cushioned
and
head bent toward the Child
up with
built
His type of Mary
pleasant, with a smile
(fig.
27).
the softened weight
The
and a
forms are
we would
expect,
but the suave grace involves an emphasis on curving
line that departs
tradition, as
we
from Giotto and
have a sharp bright presence
tapestried thrones. This
work;
later
The
it
rated Daddi
of Giotto.
lost.
is
stiffens into a
critical
less
as they
another
turn before
most true of
his earlier
dry routine.
Florentine public,
Dante) made
reflects
shall see. In small scale his figures
who
(starting with
judgments of their painters,
highly than three other disciples
The works of one of these,
No doubt some
of the finer
Stefano, are
anonymous
all
paint-
27.
Bernardo Daddi. Madonna and
Goldfinch. Panel,
Collection, Villa
Child with a
32 1/4" x 21 1/4". Berenson
I
Tatti, Florence
reproduced by permission of the President
and Fellows of Har\ard College}
to the
coi DRIM
\i
f
1.
(n/iw
/
(i>.<"f
ru.
..
^
...
Aiigeh. and Aposllii.
I
180 90.
56';
Mosaic, height of the three figurative mosaics, on the vertical,
width following around the cur\ed apse wall, 47'6". Cathedral, Monrcale
(M'1,I>RI»[AT«. a,
CiMABirp.,
M/ftiomt/i an/l CInlil
Panel, ti '7"
'
Enthrmril
7'4'.
urith
Angrlt mil Pmpheli.
Uffei G*(lcry, nnnrnr*
c.
i
aii
/'„
/,;m
,1/
Ju,/ii>. C.I
;.i
,
I
\i.n.,
I
ImihI.
I'.nlll
COLORPLATE
4
M\-''
Fresco. 8'3" x 14 3
-
"^
"^
'
A'-
'
'
'
:,
/
I
,
Bardi di \ ernio Chapel. S. Croce. Florence
ings in existence fVom this stylistic context are his,
and
several theories
The
on
Taddeo Gaddi
second,
have been offered.
this point
1334-d. 1366),
(docs.
assisted Giotto faithfully for years, but in the 1330s
he was
also active
on
These and
blocky
and
his
liinbs,
sets
in a
number
of frescoes and panels.
.Madonnas tend
with
effect,
own account
his
of complex narrative
have a wooden,
to
hinged angular features
stiffly
suggesting his devotion to Giotto's prin-
ciples with limited fluency.
He
some of his
lifts
large
compositions from his master's, only adding orna-
mental details to enliven them. But he
is
more
fasci-
works was Maso
(docs. 1341-1346),
few. His masterpiece
is
though they are
a scene in a fresco cycle
painted in another family chapel in the Franciscan
4). It is a legend of
church, Santa Croce (colorplate
Saint Sylvester, the jxipe
who converted
emperor Constantine, and
city of ruins, as
it
walls appears like
color
looked in .Maso's time.
flat
Roman
Rome as a
A series of
the
represents
screens in broad high-keyed
the farther ones visible behind the con-
fields,
damaged nearer
veniently
it
This goes beyond
one can
ones.
Giotto's exploration of environment, since
conceive of these buildings as being there without
nating in another no\eliy, night scenes with sudden
people, while in Giotto's scenes buildings always
supernatural light effects
derive their form from the people they contain,
28),
(fig.
Egg-yolk -colored
mold. Maso's people remain thick and cubic,
strict lines seem
glowing ground bursts out of darkness and models
like a
the figures half black, half yellow. Stimulated by
but their creamy planes of faces and
Giotto's exploration of
later
years,
this
environment and
air in his
Taddeo's original controlled
is
to enclose a
smoldering gleam,
being held
in,
breadth.
vision.
The pupil who
us the most brilliant
lias left
and
their
imf)osing
Maso thinks only of the same problems
some additional answers.
as
Giotto, but arrives at
Duccio
8.
In the earh
(he two greatest
louneeiith teiiiiu\
duct intimate exchanges of resources with Horence.
centers of painting in the Western world were Floi-
including commissions for
ence and Siena, neighbors and rivals in the same
Thus Duccio (docs. 1278-1311). the
figure who determined the special character
more medieval:
region, Tuscany. Siena seems
on a
and owed
hilltop,
safe refuge in times
its
early
growth
to
it
is
being a
of wars fought before there was
many other hill towns. Florence, like
modern cities, is on water. Siena had long
artillen', like
all
were
as if pressures
this justifies
great
adhered
to the Ghibelline party,
feudal structure of the Holy
supporting the
Roman Empire,
while
enese painting,
is first
for Florence (1285;
is
artists.
great
of
Si-
seen in an altarpiece painted
fig.
29).
This grand Madonna
of the same type as Cimabue's (see colorplate
and both take ByMntine shapes
to
2).
be the norm. But
who was younger, departs from them more
The throne in Cimabue's is something
Duccio,
positively.
Florence had always been Guelph. in theory sup-
of a diagram, signifying .Mary's rank, and then
porting the pope, but in practice the local autononn
the bottom reworking itself into a frame for the
of town commerce. Siena's great Cathedral sculp-
prophets; Duccio's
ture by Giovanni Pisano alludes to Gothic France,
carpentry, with
while Florence's, by
now
Cambio,
.\riiolfo di
future tastes in imagery (see
figs. 8,
losing out in the rivalry
15).
foretells
Siena was
and adopting Guelits papal banking
phism, and had been deprived of
business even before
in 1309.
Yet
it
was
its
still
greatest financial firm fiiiled
energetic
remarkable painting and,
enough
to
produce
as rivals often do, to con-
its
is
at
a fairly plausible object of
simple-minded receding diago-
nals. Duccio's angels cling to the
throne with both
hands; their bodies are not exclusively crystallized
rhythms
ot
homage. The abstract gold
restricted to tiie Christ Child,
golden
flow
hem
is
a line that
runs
folds are
now
and the Madonna's
down
in a
twining
with calculated inegularity, evoking three-
dimensional projection and recession
too.
The
37
#^4r-
Judoi Reeemng
Ike Thirty
Puces of Silver,
from the Maesta. 1308-11. Panel, 18" x 20"
Museo dellOpera
29.
Dl'ccio.
Madonna and Child Enthroned
Angels. 1285. Panel,
del
Duomo, Siena
with
i4'9"xg'6". Uffizi
Gallerv, Florence
elegant rhyilims of line, important in these borders
and in the angels, are Duccio's most famous specialty
and show the stimulus of Giovanni Pisano, but here
they become more beautifidlv ornamental and less
classically volumetric, so that they suggest the
Gothic" of northern Europe. This
in the
like
the Three Franciscati.s,^^ tiny
to the passionate prostrated
flat
"Late
most obvious
an enamel reliquary. There the gold
down
of a
Madonna with
is
hem winds
monks,
in front
patterned wall that resembles French man-
Macila
— the Madonna
— was the widest
(1308-11)
suiToiuided by a court of saints
panel painting until then,
38
•
Samuel H. Kress Collection
uscTipt illumination.
Duccio's
Duccio. The Calling of Peler and Andrew,
31.
from the Maesta. 1308-11. Panel, 17" 18".
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
made
to be plated
on
ihe
altar of Siena Cathedral.'-
liigli
Linear refine-
ment of folded loops and
twisting figures, on a
umental
religious function in the
extra range of depth, quite unoccupied by the ac-
back surface and
and the disciples come 10 the
Emmaus, the path which their next steps
will take is marked for us like a tunnel. Most fantastically, in the Denial of Fete r,^^ the maid who
both sides of the baseboard underneath (the pre-
casually asks Peter the dreaded question rests her
scale,
restates
terms of aristocratic pageantiy.
more overwhelming because
The work
its
were covered by an immense
della)
more than
is
moneven
series of panels,
of the lives of Man- and Christ
forty,
These explore the powers of space as
drama with a succession of inventions
30, 31).
(figs.
a vehicle of
that outdistance Giotto. Duccio's spatial pursuits
Madonna,
here, as in his Florence
more
are
surpris-
ing than the linear rhythms that are in tension with
When
them.
Judas receives the thirty pieces of
point where the hands meet to
silver (fig. 30), the
hand over the money
lines,
is
marked by
their
cupping
but also by stone arches that shoot up like a
and cover
fountain,
a
porch which establishes an
tion. VV'hen Christ
gate of
up which she will walk
These scoopings into depth are
unprecedented, and always work to accentuate the
drama, even though they are probably not as close
hand on the
rail
of a stair
the next minute.
to the heart of Duccio's
drama.
Marys
tions
method
as the purely linear
We see its choreography when, in the
at
the Tomh,^* the hands
lift
on the theme of shock, or
bodies of the Calling oj Feter and
as
Three
in three varia-
in the swiveling
Andrew
(fig.
31),
they swing ninety degrees from their fishnets to
Christ, a coinposition just slightly revised from an
old Bv/antine formula.
Sculptors of the Early Fourteenth Century
9.
In tlie generations after the formidable pioneers,
Nicola and Giovanni Pisano and Arnolfo, there
drastic
decline
shortly after
mused by
in
the
role
of sculptors.
is
a
.'\nd
1300 the finest ones seem to be be-
the influence of Duccio or of Giotto.
The bronze
statues
and marble
reliefs
on the
front of the Cathedral of Orvieto, a small tow n southeast of Siena, are
names.
(docs,
.A
connected with two mysterious
Sienese sculptor
named Ramodi Paganello
from 1281) was working there from 1298
about 1310; no certain works of
to
his are preserved
anywhere, but he was described as an equal
rival of
Giovanni Pisano in Siena, and he may have traveled
Then in 1310-30 the Sienese architect
Lorenzo Maitani (docs. 1302-d. 1330) was in charge
of work on the Cathedral. The sculpture on the flat
in France.
panels of the fagade
ed, suggesting at
(fig.
first
32)
is
is
a late
"Lorenzo Maitani." Damiud Souls.
portion of Last Judgmtnl ra<;adc
relief.
Marble, about 36" x 54". Cathedral. Orii
extremely sophisticat-
a dancing calligraphy, yet.
closer up, full of soft textures of flesh
leaves. It
32.
and even of
decorative version of the classical
Gothic of \otre-Dame in Paris and even Reims,
making the rough strength of Giovanni and .Arnolfo
39
Ramo
look ungainly. All this suggests
di Pagaiiello,
but the carving was evidently done during Maitani's
time, and perhaps he or a collaborating sculptor
worked in a style that Ramo had established; the
work is now usually labeled "Maitani." It is most
remarkable in the drawn
int'iit,
tight,
reliefs of the Last Judgwhere the cutting line stretches the bodies
like a Giovanni Pisano transfer! ed to a deco-
rative surface.
Tino
Camaino
di
clearer personality.
A
(docs.
1312-1337) has a
Sieiiese
apprentice of Gio-
vanni Pisano's, he succeeded to some of his master's
Pisan honors, and so produced the elaborate
of
33-
TiNO
Di
Camaino.
Tomb of Emperor Henry
Campo
(1315;
Ghibelline hope and
the
last
te.
The arrangement
fig.
Sanlo. Pisa
to a
Maesta
ing
is
much admired by Dan-
of the main part, enthroned
(or vice versa),
less like
emperor
is
tomb
33), Pisa's guest,
emperor between standing counselors,
V'll. 1315-
Marble, height of central figure 71",
others about 60".
Emperor Henr\ VII
analogous
is
but surprisingly the carv-
The
Giovanni's than like .Arnolfo's.
a trunk, enlivened
by wrapped
folds,
and
the counselors are the tough cubes, articulated with
diagonal incisions to mark their gestures, which
Camaino.
Bishop Orso of Floremt, from
34.
TiNO
become Tino's hallmark, of an
DI
his
tomb. 1321
Marble, height 52"- Cathedral. Florence
ness.
Back
dinal
the
insistent antigraceful-
in Siena (1317-18)
first
he carved for a car-
of a long series of many-storied
tombs, '^ elaborations of Arnolfo's type, which he
produced with astonishing speed
each.
Moving on, he reached
iiieiu
during a brief stay
figure of the powerful
shown
his
few months
in a
peak of achieve-
in Florence.
The tomb
Bishop Orso (1321;
in an original motif, as
if
fig.
34)
is
sitting asleep, con-
centrated in bulk like a bear, his big head flopped
o\er. .\nother fragment, a cubic but heavily active
allegory of Charity with two children,
Tino was obviously
erful.
is
equally pow-
finding in Giotto an ex-
titing reinforcement for his previous love of massi\
e plainness. In
1
324,
now
the most reputed living
sculptor, he settled in Naples,
where he worked
as
an architect, but chiefly on a series of tower-like
tombs
for the prolific royal family,
up
own
to his
death.
.\iidrea
da Pontedera (docs. 1330-d. 1348/49).
tailed in Florence
when he
Andrea Pisano,
is
first
known
aiTives there to execute the gieat bronze
doors for the eleventh-century
Baptistery.""
He
modeled and chased them, relying technically on
the prototype of the inedie\al biotue doors of Pisa
Cathedral, but a specialized craftsman did the casting.
The
panels of stories ol John the Baptist copy
older compositions with a cool expertness of
mod-
eled tbim that
is
toiiiplcteh (,i()ltesquc in
its seri-
graceful
ous sense of the body but diliued with
Gothic line. Andrea then succeeded Giotto as head
of the Cathedral works, and for
its
Bell
Tower
of panels symbolizing the arts, indusgraphically individuated
tries, and other allegories,
debatable whether he used
(fig- 35)- Typically, it is
carved a
designs
set
left
by Giotto for the purpose; it is also typireliefs should be tlie most important
such
cal that
sdilpture
at tlie
time.
35.
Thf
.^NDRFA PlSANO.
An
o/Sfamanihip. Marble, height 40"
Bell Tnvver. C:athedral. Florence
Simone Martini
10.
Duccio was older than Giotto, and did not exliaiist
generation
his own new methods. Hence the next
Florof painters in Siena had more leeway than in
ence,
ities.
and was far more varied in strong personalSimone Martini (docs. I3i5-d.i344) first
appears with his sMaesIa (1315;
It
a* la'"ge ^s
it is
frescoed on a
criticizes Duccio's very recent
work by wip-
Duccio's but
wall.
fig- S*"')'
less
surprising since
Byzantine turns of phrase. Mary is sepGothic
arated off from her courtiers by delicate Late
line and
tracery. Duccio's lovely thin meanders of
ing out
probing appear in the crowds of saints,
its
but most strikingly in the marquee above, with
long-and-short rhythms. Sienese painting now seems
and depth in terms of
winding thioiigii space. This
assembly
Maesta is not in a church but in the
room of the city hall, and its inscription says
does a
that Mary loves Heaven no more than she
possible to define by line
structures
man of good counsel. The context seems
typical of
painting at
the strongly political quality of Sienese
it also symthis time and of Simone in particular;
bolizes a tendency for
themes to be
as religious as
less
historians
from
connected with the Church. (Wiien
noticed the Renaissance withdrawal
first
a churchly culture, they
pagan
ed too
overdrew the idea of a
Renaissance," and some recently have reactfar
back again.)
Simone worked much of the time far froin
(Tino di
Siena, and for King Robert of Naples
Camainos patron) he produced a political masterclaim
piece (fig. 37). Robert was a vounger son whose
its
his spatial
wiry
ever but
to the
tinone depended on the renunciation of an
who had joined the Church;
older brother, Louis,
when he
died. Robert successfully urged the
pope
to
Simone painted him in an alcrown and
tarpiece. enthroned, receiving a heavenlv
handing an earthly one to the kneeling Robert. The
declare Louis a saint.
two crowns are incised into the gold background,
and their sharp preciousness recurs in the main fig
falling in
ure. The churchman's embroidered cloak,
heavy rhythms and covered with sliields. reveals
rope belt diophis monk's robe underneath and tlie
ping in long curves. Humble withdrawal and rich
rank are considered congiiient.
of King Robei
.A cardinal who was a friend
1
left
41
painted
a legacy for a chapel at the Franciscan shrine in As-
Annunciation
and Simone frescoed this with the legend of
Saint Martin. The most famous incident in this
Siena Cathedral, has no space, but only the relation-
sisi,
saint's legend,
beggar,
is
when he
cut off half his cloak for a
celebrated in the central motif of the grand
swath of cloth, swinging in folds from shoulder to
steadying hand.
Much
is
made of Saint Martin bewe see the scene of his
ing a knight of chivalry, and
being knighted and getting
his spurs (fig. 38); else-
(1333;
colorplate
5),
for
ship of the two people: the angel pressing forward,
with his cloak in a quick flounce of ending
flight,
and the more extraordinary Mary, who is startled
and presses backward to hide, her reality ensured by
gold scalloped lines in the hem of her dress. Simone
belongs to the second generation of strong
personalities concerned with the material
artist
and the
where his funeral is held in a church full of tracery
windows and deep shadow. The chapel utilizes the
artist's whole range, and he designed its windows
and pavement, too.
Simone's linear expressiveness is never mere
human; the new style can now be taken for granted
and manipulated, and the town culture can safely
offer an alliance to feudal kings. This is particularly
ornament, and his simplest masterpiece shows it serving a more dramatic psychological statement. The
painting reality.
true
when
a personal style
like Simone's,
but he
is
is
naturally aristocratic
nonetheless an individual
37.
SiMONL Martini-
ir.
j:;.
Loins nj
Maples. 1317- Panel,
Museo Nazionale
di
SiMONE Martin
L
The Knighting of Si. Marlin.
Fresco, 8'8"x6'6".
Toulouse Crowning King Roberl of
78"X54".
Capodimontc,
Lower Church,
S.
Francesco,
.\-ssisi
Naples
11.
The
Lorenzetti Brothers
Less thinly elegant than Simone's, the work of the
its political place in the context
two Lorenzetti has
itself. Both were also interand one of ihem, Ambrogio, spent
good deal of time working in Florence, yet they
of the Sienese republic
ested in Giotto,
a
are
modern
ties.
The
in being distinct individual personali
older, Pietro (docs. 1306-1342),
first
ap-
ears (1320) in a large altarpiece whose Madonna
turns gently to the Child with a grace accented by a
linear curve. '^
Both figures are heavy and
are related to each other not in Giotto's
as in Giovanni Pisanos,
how
to coat
who had
one of a
but
taught the .Sienese
Gothic line with sculptural weight. In
that vein Pietro's masterpiece
39),
soft,
way so much
set
is
his Dclmsilion
(fig.
of frescoes, again, in the chuicli of
Saint Francis at Assisi.
The cross
itself is
ornament-
•illv
marked with the giain of its wood, and from it
falls in a waving collapse, pulling out the
the bodv
shoulder bones, so that sliarp drawing serves the exposition of pain. But below, the figures standing to
take the limp body are Giottesque sacklike masses,
only modified by a pattern of thin folds around the
edges. Equally physical
Sienese.
is
and
unaristocratic, yet
Pietro's late masterpiece (1342;
the altarpiece of the Bn(/) oflhel'irgiu.
It is
more
fig.
40),
in three
panels, a triptych, like a cross section of a Gothic
<
hurch; the form
Madonna between
is
commonly used
for painting a
Saints. Pietro treats the carpentry
its frames as the architecture of his painted space, building rooms back fiom the picture
system and
plane and from the four wooden uprights. One
large room asymmetrically fills the center and right-
43
39-
PlETRO LORENZETTI.
Deposition from the Cross.
Fresco. 12'4" x G'g".
Lower Clhureh.
PlETRO LORENZETTI.
40.
Birth of the Virgin. 1342.
73"^ 71".
Museo deirOpera
Panel,
Siena
44
del
Duo
S.
Francesco, Assisi
His brother .Ambrogio (docs, 1319-1347)
even more insistent on physicality. In his
is
many
Madonnas, the Child is fat and active, squirming
and bouncing. In his \ate Ainiimcialioti ('.'il-O'" '°''
the city hall, the figures are assertively
by
plump
as
if
Rubens, and distract our attention from
a Sienese
the fact that depth
is
measured more systematically
here than in any other painting of the time. Jewellike lozenge patterns reinforce architectural
Temple (1342;
in his I'rrserilnlioti in thr
Hut his fame depends on a
the
room
in the city hall
set
depth
fig.
41).
of frescoes around
where the executive com-
mittee of nine counselors met (1337-39)- Nothing
Good ami Bad Governmcnt survives anywhere. On the end wall opposite
the windows, the allegorical images of Justice, C^oncord, and others make a medieval s( hema, though
similar to this Allegory of
Roman
the almost
modern.
some
figures
seems
to the side wall
which
solidity in
We are more drawn
offers specific instances of the £//i?r^< o/Goof/ Goj/f 7 «-
meiil (colorplate
Government
,
is
6, fig.
42; the other side wall,
poorly preserved).
The city
is
Bad
before
its people walking, doing
and dancing, and beyond the walls the
farms, with roads and travelers, are a green panorama matching the checkerboard of the town roofs.
us in a bird's-eye view,
business,
41.
Ambrogio Lorenzetti.
Presettlalion in
ili,
Temple. 1342. Panel. S's'Vj'e".
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
The
all. With
(among surviving works)
allegory of Safety in the sky blesses
unique articulateness
Siena was honoring the concrete results of urban
hand panels,
and receives
a
bedroom where
visitors;
sits
up
in the left panel the father
waits in the hall outside. This
is
Pietro's
most mon-
morality, the ideal goal of capitalist energy.
concern the
airy space.
material quality of holy events, a tone that later,
mon
through indirect (hannels.
trates
Renaissance,
in Ihe
Covntn.
1338-40. Fresco, total wall length
Citv Hall, Siena
Flem-
brought
his sense
4fi
To this
of weight and
live forms suspended in broad
These concerns and techniques are com-
but .-Ambrogio perhaps concenmost intensely on their interplay and the
to the period,
resulting conviction of a shared world.
.\mbrogio LoRtNztrn.
Good Government
will ^ti^lulate the
artist
rhythmic motion,
umental assertion of the everyday bourgeois and
ish
42.
the mother
Orcagna and His Contemporaries
12.
About 1350 the most highly regarded young painters in Florence were the Clone brothers, Andrea
(docs. i344?-d. 1368), known by the nickname
Orcagna, and Nardo (docs. 1344?-I365). Both their
most impressive works are in the
family
Strozzi
chapel in the church of the Dominican order, Santa
Maria Novella. Orcagna's altarpiece
plate 7)
is
(
1
354-57 color;
original, omitting the internal frames
between the three parts so that Christ enthroned,
fixedly frontal, can give the keys to his successor,
Saint Peter, with one
hand and the book
to the fa-
mous Dominican theologian Saint Thomas .\quinas
with the other. Thus the picture makes its points
about the relations of God, the Church, and theology through ceremonial public gestures; the strict
frontality of one figure and the profile of another
further organize the statement into a kind of dia-
gram.
The themes
are reinforced in the scenes of
the predella underneath, where Saint
Thomas
cele-
brates Mass, alluding to his importance in formulat-
ing the doctrine of the sacrament, and where Christ
during
a
storm rescues the disciples' boat
traditional
(fig.
symbol of the Church. But in these
43), a
little
44.
scenes the presentation
is
a vaster space than any
up
far
to
from diagiammatic. In
now, the
Nardo
di
Cione.
Christ Carrying the Cross.
Fresco, I3'4"x8'2". Badia, Florence
figures of the
boat scene exert themselves, craning their necks and
pulling ropes. Both upper and lower figures are
modeled with
manding
a rocklike densitv that
connotes com-
strength.
same chapel, Nardo 's LasI Judgment
huge
where saints appear row on row without
In the
frescoes are again diagrammatic, notably the
I'aradise,
any space. His figure modeling, unlike Orcagna's,
and giacefuUv curving.
is
softlv yielding in texture
It
reappears in dramatic, nondiagrammatic guise in
his
other most impwrtant work, the damaged fresco
of Christ Carrying the Cross in another Florentine
church, the Badia
(fig.
44).
Mary
tries to
approach
Christ and he swings around to see her, but a soldier in between prevents their meeting, holding his
sword horizontally
43.
Okc.Mj.sa.
C.A;ij(
Risiuing
ihe
DiicipU
from predella oi Christ Enthroned among
Saints (see colorplate 7). 1354-57.
Panel,
S.
7"x
25".
Maria Novella, Florence
in the
empty
central space; keen
movement and space as its vehicle.
Thus both Cione brothers make vivid statements
tension uses
about physical humanity, developing the Florentine
concern with such dramas.
of St. Thomas
Andrea da Firenze. Triumph
38'.
Begun 1366. Fresco, width of wall
Florence
-nanish Chapel. S. Maria Novella,
\.jmms.
are their
Since their "diagrammatic" works
sometimes inmost conspicuous ones, it has been
ferred that this was the typical
new
style of their
confirmation
generation, a view that seems to gain
.\ndrea da
from the Triumph of the Church by
cycle in
Firenze (docs. i343->377: fig- 45). a fresco
Maria Novella.
the Dominican convent next to -Santa
painting in quality but a major docu-
minor
It is
ment
of
its
epoch, and again dominated by
flat
sche-
concepts. But
matically arranged figures clarifsing
paintings may reflect
these
all
of
qualities
special
the
Dominicans in every
the interests of their patrons.
case. Since Saint
Thomas'
Sumrtia Theologica this
expounding of
order had had a great role in the
contrast
philosophical concepts in scholasticism, in
product
Franciscans, whose greatest literar>'
marble hardness suggests that he found
Tino di Camaino, the most sculptural
far-ranging influof recent carvers and one who had
Orcagna also designed the canopy and worked
lation of
inspiration in
ence.
problematic extent as an architect.
to a
Human
Milano
who
this
human
narrative.
The Dominicans
crease their patronage at this time,
indeed did in
and
(docs.
of
painted in Florence the most beautiful cycle
period for a Franciscan church (colorplate 8).
gaze gently and as if tired out of thin,
Its tall figures
shadowed
faces,
swaying and leaning forward with
naturally
graceful reserve. Such aristocratic manners
of Milan
suggest a background in the feudal courts
and north
is
ni
Italy generallv.
of lesser interest than
to the
a verv
was the Liltle Flowers of Sainl Fraiiiis,^^
and elaboration of architecdominate the art of Giovanni da
1346-1369), a visitor from north Italy
narrative
tonic depth also
s
probably
its
is
extant there
source,
and GiovanSimone
But what
own
as well, the "courtly" art of
Martini.
to that ex
even in works for
is a change of mood. Yet
thieves
them, Orcagna's predella and the crucified
in spa.\ndrea da Firenze's Crucifixion, writhing
tent there
of
tial
formal
depth, seem to slide away from the
thematic concern. .\nd
it
is
even
less
visible in
for the FranOrcagna's great Last Judgment fresco
Triumph of Death
ciscans of Santa Croce, where the
is
filled
beggars,
with churning fighters, crippled
the same
(fig. 4''). all having
and biting monsters
his Strozzi altarenergetic solidity as the predella of
piece.
This modeling
through Orcagna's
may have developed
we see on his marble canopy
Madonna bv Daddi. at Or .San Michele.
time, which
a
style
relief sculpture, the finest of its
enclosing
Its
articu-
46.
Orcagna. Brggan. fragment of Triumph of
Death. Fresco, entire height at
S.
Croce. Florence
left
edge
32'.
13.
Barna and Traini
Two
the 1340s are famous for one huge
artists of
fresco cycle eacli. almost their only works.
Barna da
Siena's big cycle of the life of Christ, in the
main
town of San Gimignano, was
by other artists. The word "Barna" may
church of the
finished
little hill
best be regarded as a convenient label for these frescoes, since notliing
is
known about him. They show
that he learned most from
Simone Martini,
especial-
ly
the enriching value of sharp undulating line and
its
lacy patterns.
where
in robes
what seems
lent
to
This pattern of drawing, seen every-
and curly
hair, clashes
oddly with
have been a naturally hard and vio-
temperament. His exaggeratedly
tall
people
-.wing out their stiff arms like poles, with elementary
strength, not
bending them.
ed by pain to the
rough
it.
effect, as
The most
(.nuifixioti.
47.
Barxa DA
l-RANCLsco Train!, The Triumph
oj Death.
When
faces are distort-
of unrealistic caricature,
of an inarticulate provincial,
a
assists
striking figures are in themes like the
where foreshortened
faces
between
crude and comic are painted with undulating con-
Siena. The Ktss of Juda\
Fresco, 8'3"x f^". Chiesa Collegiata.
San Gimignano
4!'..
f)oint
Fresco, i8'6"
.
tours, or
Judas Receiving His Bribe, ugly with
sprawling
legs,
or Peter cutting off the servant's ear
49'. C^ampii Sanio. Pisa
with
suing
a giaiul
in the A'(\\ nf
/iiiliis
Siena was not for generations to produce
own
ters witli tlieir
maimer
the usual
styles, so tlie
choice was between
them
ext itedly.
Lorenzetti were the inspiration of Fran-
cescoTraini (docs. i32i-i347?or
he
47).
repeating the old foiiiiulas
of
straight, or Barria's of exaggerating
The
(fig.
new mas-
where
136;$). Pisa,
the one notable artist in his time, had close
is
remarkable
is
to the
now
Triumph
(fig.
48).
The
on
later ol)ser\ers. inc
has had
it
huling Shelley
Modern painting
in the fourteenth leiuurv
dominantly Florentine and Sienese. 1 he
of late thirteenth-century
.\rnolfo,
greater pictorial quality. But even
must be regarded
set
beside
if
we ignore
as the
its
the
oidy work
prototype,
Am-
brogio I.oren/etti's
Good
plaic
the spread of an encyclopedic
t),
fig.
(2). in
Goi/rriimnil (see color-
theme through wide panoramic space, making
up-to-date sense of ptiysical events reinforce
ical
aim.
Some
forceful gestures
its
its
eth-
of the incidents in their roughly
and forms have,
besides, unforget-
table graphic characterization.
and
others, stop
pre-
is
activities
Rome, with Cavallini,
when the papacy moves
&3
to .Avignon in 1305. Yet extraordinary talents
appear in Bologna and Padua, which ha\e been
en their due only in recent
The Master
giv-
years.
1
of Saint Cecilia, himself a wan-
derer and the chief developer of Cavallini's approach, inspired a prolific but routine school in
Rimini, on the Adriatic
coast.
especially
from the Master's
altarpiece
and
fig.
The-
on a book by a contemporary Pisan
monk.^^ They may attract us more than works of
Ihe Fourteenth Century outside Tuscany
14.
away
cem
fresco iiu ludes
the standard scenes of Christ's tieaih. but
special impact
incidents of hermits' lives in the desert of the
baid, based
of the time that can be
Irest
and musicians,
people in Boccaccio's Dt'camcroit,^^ and the
like
with com-
usual deduction that he
rare additional images, such
confronted by three corpses,
the groups of lovers, merrymakers,
for tiny scenes
uj Dcutli in the Pisa Cathedral
Campo Santo
etery, the
its
naiTatives, this
painted the most remarkable parts of the huge
of the
through
altarpiece
plicated spaces, full of expressive mobile crowds.
This has led
I.is/t,
as the three cavaliers
Dominic
links to Siena. Traini's Saint
(1344-45)^"
and
From
this sotirce,
late Saint
and
Margaret
wildly gesttning soft figures (see
its
22), a brilliant
young painter emerges
in Bolo-
gna. In Vitale dei Cavalli (dots. 1334- 13,59).
elsewhere as Vitale da Bologna,
tiie
known
centrifugal ener-
:^
l^^^vfl
busyness of crowds and monks is again steeped
softening shadow, but endowed witii a dashing
getic
in a
exaggeration of acrobatics that can be comic or agonizing
(fig.
49).
His Madonnas smile straight
desire to enliven.
le's
at us
bJtWhH^^B
archaic Greek kouroi, suggesting a similar
like
trast
The
effect
of spontaneity
makes Giotto and Sinione
seem embedded in a system.
art
in X'ita-
.Martini by con4vf.
i
\'iiALL UA Bologna.
Legend of St. Anthony Abbot.
Panel. 31" v 15".
Pinacoicca Nazionalc, Bologna
49
In Padua .\ltichiero (docs. 1369-1384), from
nearby \erona, painted two fresco cycles about 380
1
in collaboration with .Avanzo (docs. 1379-1 389?),
an
unclear figure
who was perhaps
ant
Altichiero was probably the finest
52).
(fig.
a secondary assist-
painter in Italy in this generation, near the end of
He commands
the century.
crowds in not too
vast
orderly processions, coming
closer to
still
Tuscan
dense figure
ideas, in this case to Giotto's organic
modeling. In grays and other pale colors, he empha-
networks of line with rich Late Gothic
sizes fine
architecture,creatinga profuse but con trolled world.
His contemfwrary in Padua, a Florentine immigrant,
Giusto de'
stems
instead
Menabuoi
from
(docs.
1363-1387),
"mechanical" phase of
the
Guariento. Giusto's art consistently adopts repetition,
with infinite rows of identical holv figures like
Indian temple sculptures, isolated and immobilized,
JO.
T'lMMA-iJ
D'l
MoDf--»A
Ml
In-
oJ,h
_lor,
or endless narrative scenes, or even,
Amboisadors, from St. Ursula cycle.
Fresco,
7'
when he
paints
buildings, endless rows of columns and steps. His
x Y^". Museo CiNico, Tre\'iso
major work,
filling the inside
dome
of the
Padua Baptistery seems indeed
,
to
want
of the
to revert to
the mosaic schemes usual in such locations in the
.Middle Ages.
But Tuscan resources
The most
attract
talented painter after
.\Iodena (1325/6-1379),
frescoes in the
V'i tale's
him
who went
is
successors.
Tommaso da
north to paint
Venice area, in the town of Treviso.^'^
For the meeting room of the Dominican convent
row of portraits of DoWTitingat desks, whose constantly
there he painted an endless
minican
saints, all
varied gestures avoid
and
lively freshness.
monotony with comic vigor
His other surviving large work,
frescoes of the life of Saint Ursula
ly
(fig.
50),
is
isolated
monument
imitate
is
in
a
either
Lorenzetti for
and
its
but leans
much on .Ambrogio
women
for its linear patterns. .And the
most talented
native painter of the area, Guariento (docs. 13381368), turns to the
same mine. In externals he copies
Giotto's nearbv work, but
when on
his
own he
makes Gothic patterns of wonderfully refined
line,
meandering over three-dimensional human forms
and often adding lyrical pressure to dramas (fig. 51).
In so doing he is not above lifting whole figures from
Pietro l.oren/etti. Some of his finest works are smallscale panels,
and
until recently he has suffered
from
being best known for big "machines," particularly a
long series of white-robed angels^'' which led 10 his
being labeled a traditional Byzantinist.
51.
a
is
fig.
the
Lombard
in a standard
tomb
far
away
as Catalonia.
53), the ruler of \"erona.
Gl'arie."TO. The
Fiery Furnaie.
Thm
Children in the
from Old Testameni
Fresco, height of frieze 38".
.Accademia Pataxina. Padua
cycle.
It
carvto
formula that
tomb of Can Grande
equal-
types of graceful, heavy
is
Romanesque, or begins
still
even spread to tombs as
(d.1329;
Italian sculp-
period
quantity of routine
Tino di Camaino
exception
this
that has a striking parallel to V'itale.
emerges from
ing that
work of north
power
bright in color, casual in gesture, and persuasive
in physical reality,
50
The one
ture of active
This
della Scala
who was
a
Altichiero and Avanzo. Miracle of Si. Lucy
c.!38o. Fresco, i2'6''X9'io".
Oratory- of St. George,
fierce soldier, the
Padua
head of the Ghibelliiie league, and
the patron of Dante in exile.
The monument
is sil-
houetted steeply over the door of a church; the
knight sits on his blanketed horse and pulls it back,
grinning while the horse leans ahead and the horse
cloths
like sails.
fly
The local sculptor,
used to archi-
was no doubt stimulated by the
superb location to produce this unforgettable image
tectural contexts,
in
which we instantly recognize
zation just
a
moment
of
civili-
before feudal rule was diluted into
53.
Can Grande
della Sea
.
Stone, height S'j", base 2
Castelvecchio,
Verona
chivalrv.
1
The Competition for the Doors of the
5.
Florence Baptistery
other new things, fourteenth-century Florence gave birth to the expression of artistic tastes by
Florenthe public. .After Dante's time many other
including Boccaccio and Petrarch, may be
Among
tines,
found saying
"l
like (or
•people like") this anisi
same artists are often selected
but m
Giotto always, Stefano and Orcagna often—
comment at the end of the century, for the first time,
contemporary artists are omitted from the choices.
best." Naturally the
And
indeed, after about 1370 Florentine painting
and sculpture slipped into a mechanical repetition
With
of the forms of Taddeo Gaddi and Orcagna.
and
396) of .\gnolo Gaddi, Taddeos son
the death
( 1
a nadir
the least muscle-bound painter at the time,
was reached. The renewal around 1400 rejected this
whole tradition
in favor of other stimuli: ancient
Roman sculpture, foreign Gothic art, and Giotto.
The shift focuses on one point of excitement.
In 1401 the Florentine
sponsor of expenditures
Wool
at the
Finishers Guild, the
Baptisten. opened a
51
FiLiPPO Brunelleschi.
54-
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
55.
of Isaac. 1401-2.
Bronze, 21" x 17". Museo Nazionale,
Sacrifice
Sacrifice
Bargello, Florence
Bargello, Florence
of Isaac. 40 1 -2
Bronze, 21 "x 17". Museo Nazionale,
competition for a
1
set of bronze doors to match the
admired ones by Andrea Pisano. The two finalists
were both young Florentine goldsmiths, probably
realized quotation of ancient
twenty-three and twenty-four, and the choice be-
suggestive of fine workmanship, as of a polished
tween them became a fascinating public debate; the
jewel.
sample panels subinitted were luckily saved. Both,
presumably
following
instructions,
represent
this reason.
Abraham
sacrificing
with the same
Isaac,
actors. Filippo Brunelleschi
one dense group
of
set
(1377-1446) built up
to climactic action,
Abraham grasp-
same parenthesis-curve, while
relief
more sophisticated
is
The committee
Isaac
is
a beautifully
Roman sculpture. The
spatially,
and
far inore
chose Ghiberti, perhaps for
To us Brunelleschi, human, physical, and
dramatic, may seem more Florentine. Renaissance,
and modern, while Ghiberti is Gothic, decorative,
and craftsmanly; yet Ghiberti's work may have
seemed more original just because it was less in the
ing his son's neck while the angel seizes his other
Florentine tradition. Certainly the resulting doors
hand. For this tableau the servants waiting with
were
the
donkey below form a pedestal
(fig.
54).
It is
a
with younger artists and the
and they became probably the most familiar
a gieat success
public,
The
direct reversion to the early Giotto oi Joachim
work of
the Shephfids (see
panels took twenty years (1403-24), partly to design
human
fig.
23),
masses, weight built
pressive faces,
and
with
up
its
to
and
drama between
be released in ex-
lighter secondary figures.
The
power of Giotto's simplicity is plainly understood.
Lorenzo Ghiberti (docs. i4oi-d.i455) kept the anfrom the main pair, the servants even more
and even Abraham and Isaac measure offthe dis-
art in the city (fig. 56).
and model, but more
details by
to cast,
twenty-eight
and mostly
to chisel
hand. They maintain the style of the
Sacrifice of
I.'iaac,
iiKiuialiou
(fig,
as
57),
we
see for
Two
example
in the Ayi-
figures curve reciprocally,
gel apart
more
abstract in line system than Sienese
so,
wliich
would twine around the body, and yet creating
tance between
them
(fig.
55).
They
relate as parallel
curves, Isaac fitting inside the curve of .\brahains
swing. Horizontal folds in .Abrahams robe echo
52
tlie
a
no
less solid
si
rhythms
ulptural form. Other panels again
explore classical allusions or spatial capaiiiies.
COLORPLATE
6.
.\mbrogio Lorenzetti. GooJ Government
in the City.
1338-40. Fresco, loial wall length
46'.
City Hall. Siena
V
Ml
4
'1 ft
\
1
l<
jlurplate
8.
Giovanni da Milano.
Bir:li
'4
of the Virgin. 1365. Fresco. 6'6"x8'9". Rimiccini Chapel. S. Croce. Flurence
K
t-
i
57-
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Annunciation, panel of
North Doors. Gilded bronze, 2i"x
Baprister>',
56.
17".
Florence
Lorenzo Ghiberti. North Doors. 1403-24.
Gilded bronze, i8'6"x
Baptisterv-,
12'.
Florence (above doors:
Gianfrancesco Rusnci, John
the Baptist
Preaching, 1506-11, bronze)
Late Gothic Painters in Florence
16.
A
fresh style that
is
closely parallel to Ghibeiti's
appeared in painting, which discarded the lumpy
heaviness of figure that had come to mark the
Orcagna
tradition. Transitional refonn
is
perhaps
seen in the shadowy figure of Stamina (docs. 13871409),
whose probable work
is
marked by
its
spar-
kling and witty jumpiness of small forms in space
(fig.
58),
perhaps taking Orcagna's friend Traini
model (see fig. 48). But the real revolution
comes with Lorenzo Monaco (docs. 1391-1422), of
the same age as Ghiberti. His great Coronation of
as a
the Virgin (1413;
fig.
blues and pinks, makes
59), in
its
unFIorentine pale
figures arch in
Ghibenian
parentheses and reinforces the patterns with cutting
curves in repetition, constructing thin folds.
It
is
again a Late Gothic decoration, and again pleasurable in the polish of
its
technique
as in the cylin-
drical three-dimensionality of the figures.
was a
monk and
Lorenzo
started by illustrating manuscripts,
the only painting then usually done by monks.
When
he broke into larger forms he brought along
his training in
.\s
tradition
that
enamel surfaces and elegant precision.
with Ghiberti's goldsmith training, a minor
became available
to replace a
major one
had run down.
Lorenzo's art develops until in his
last
works
he abandons sculptural suggestions and gives his
figures a butterfly life of intense
gem
colors
and
57
intricately lac\
line
the
Magi
presented to the richest bourgeois merchant of Flor-
Hi^ ilunies are elegain. too,
emphasizing those thuithU subjects that have a
feudal or courtly potential, sucli as the Adoration ot
ence,
him
up only
half the surface,
pageant of the kings' retinue and horses
Such
a
mode
prepares for the
fills
visit to
and
the
rest.
Florence
reality
shape;
58.
Uffizi
for
tlie
LoKtNZO MONA
Uffizi Gallery, Florence
58
her cosmetic
Gallcn. Florence
of thi Virgin
Panel, i6'3" < 14'7".
4
1
its
social suggestion
does not have to be stylized.
and
in its
The same
is
and the leopard's pelt, and of
the two maids behind Mary who daintily inspect
Starnina. rAfioiW. Panel, 30" X82"
Corotialion
it
true of the rosebush
French roval famih. he
59.
flowers.
an elegant object that evokes aristocratic
with him a genuinely feudal and
courtly an, the Intemational Gothic from north
Italy. This style, previously most developed in ob-
He brought
of luxur>
and
But elegance does not come through abstract curves
of line. There is a sort of realism: a greyhound is in
daintiness both in
jects
Magi from
tlie
leopards, greyhounds, peacock feathers,
a
in 1421-23 of Gentile da Fabriano (dcKS. 1408-d.
1427).
o]
longs to pages and horses, along with pet monkeys,
(colorplate 9) or the Coronation of the
ceremony of vassalage, the
X'irgin. In the former, a
chief actors take
who ordered an Adoration
(colorplate 10). Here, too, half the surface be-
IB.
jar,
turning their heads with models'
6o.
Gentile da Fabriaxo.
Prisentmion in the Temple, predrlla of
Adoration oj the
Magi
^ce colorplaic lo). 1423.
Panel. 10 1/4" X 24'.
riic
and making Man' a high lady. By choosing
enough such images, one can make a real world con
vey the same mood as Lorenzo's artificial one. Hence
grace
that Gentiles faces are not stylized masks, but
it is
are soft flesh,
French
artists
and hence he
also can include (as the
do) the crippled beggar in the square,
when he
paints the I'lesenltitimt
the
predella below
little
was a wanderer, with a
ice
and Brescia and
(fig.
60).
Temple in
Although Gentile
iii
fertile career earlier in \'en-
later in Siena
of his work elsewhere
is
the
and Rome,
little
preserved.
His impact on Florence appears in the most
61.
Masolino.
The Martyrdom of John
1435. Fresco, ij'S"
the Baptist
' I2'5".
Baptister\. Ca.siiglione
d'Olona
I^uvrr, Paris
talented painter of slightly younger age, Xfasolino
Up
(docs. 1423-d. 1440).
to
1423 he was imitating
Lorenzo Monaco, with handsomely stylized hairpin
curves of spreading robes on the floor.
he frescoes
plate
1
1),
Adam and
With
slight
and yielding.
When
Eve eating the apple
(color-
transition his figures turn soft
they have a well-mannered conversation,
like Mary's maids.
greater pressures,
artist, .Vlasaccio,
But Masolino was subject
and,
to
even
from a younger revolutionary
first
finally,
from the enticing new
device of perspective, which he worked at with naive elaboration
(fig.
61
).
Jacopo della Querela
17.
62.
Jacopo della Quercia.
Tomb
of Ilaria del Carretto.
Marble, height
x
I'l". base 8'
a'lo".
Cathedral, Lucca
The same
renewal touched Siena. There, too, good
heavy-handed craftsmen had
standard altarpieces for
attractive of
filled
fifty years.
them was Paolo
churches with
Perhaps the most
Giovanni Fei
di
(docs.
1372-1410), a creator of glowing people like gentle
fireflies,
who have something
in
common
with
the
main
that he
city
square of Siena (begun 1412;
had been attentive
fig.
painters of the early fourteenth century. As in
brogio Lorenzetti and,
his line does not
moving over
less
make
63),
to the great Sienese
obviously,
all
Am-
the others,
patterns but models form,
a surface in relation to
heights and
its
return to
depths like a road through mountains. In stone
stone sculpture, an almost forgotten factor of Siena's
sculpture this makes sharp folds twist with great
Lorenzo Monaco's. But the
shift
involved
a
1401-
great days, by Jacopo della Quercia (docs.
d.1438),
who at about
Florence
the
much
of his
twenty-five also
competed
Baptistery commission.
life
He
for
passed
away from Siena, and appears
first
with mature work when he carves a tomb for the
young wife of the tyrant of Lucca (fig. 62). The coffin
of Ilaria del Carretto
style,
(d.
shows the lady lying on
1405), in the
it,
complexity, always related to the body's
volutions.
The
figures clutching their children in their
64),
one child feeding
evoke the warmth of the
live creature
through
French
her beautiful face
in the case of Ghiberti's Isaac figure (see
Gothic and
felt
fig.
55)
troubled by the mixture of
classical influences,
but in both works
the artists' attitude toward the classical
is
to
admire
and quote literally an isolated refined object of
Roman workmanship, consistent with their feeling
for
handsome polished forms.
Jacopo was helped to become more than
Late Gothic
gem
obvious from
his first
60
cutter by being Sienese.
complex work,
63.
a fine
It
is
a fountain for
arms
ear accenting of the intricate turning actions.
ornament is repeated on the sides of the coffin,
where classical Roman infants hold garlands. Here
observers have
Jacopo della Quercia. Fonte Gaia
(before dismantling). 1414-19.
Marble, I9'x84'6".
Piazza del
in-
(fig.
at the breast, that particularly
no smoother than the beautifully flowing folds of
her robe, taut and sure. The construction of linear
and
own
fountain includes seminude female
Campo, Siena
lin-
'
64.
Jacopo della Qlercia. Rhfa
from
Fome
--
nnf
Jacopo DELLA
65.
(^L fckt.iA.
Tht Expulsion from Paradise, panel on
Silvia,
facjade.
Begun 1425. Marble, 33"x27".
S. Petronio, Bologna
Gaia. 1414-19. Marble, height 67".
City Hall, Siena
Jacopo's masterpieces, the panels around the
door of San Petronio
65, 66),
make
in
Bologna (from 1425;
figs.
the clearest use of beautiful line to
mark strong human
forces.
This new cathedral that
the Bolognese were building gave the sculptor great
opportunities. Jacopo was a slow worker and only
finished a
number of panels,
small in size but having
such power that they strongly affected the young
Michelangelo generations
later.
The
focus
ma, so often the most favorable vehicle
on dra-
for early
Renaissance statements, becomes available to
er
when he works
in relief,
Jacopo's tendency
a.s
and here
is
a sculptor to
a carv-
reinforced by
minimize the
The famous Expulsion from
Paradise, Creation of Eve, and Adam and Eve
Working exploit the imitation of Roman modeling,
factors of environment.
the isolation of the figures on a nearly blank surface,
and the interplay between the curved outline and
the swelling and dipping forms to obtain the most
concentrated meaning for the events.
The
Expul-
sion, the climax of the familiar tragedy, was being
66.
thought about
by younger
at the
same time with different means
artists in Florence.
Jacopo della Qlercia. Adam and Evt Workings
panel on facade. Begun 1435 Marble, 33"^ 27'.
S.
Petronio, Bologna
61
Nanni
i8.
Banco and the Young Donatello
di
The commission for the Baptistery doors by the
Wool Finishers Guild is the first of many in Flor-
like his contemporaries,
ence for large outdoor sculptural schemes between
is
and
1401
when such
1434.
Florence was fighting
orders ceased. In 1401-2
a losing
war and
danger
in
made him
The
seemed
to stim-
regarded
itself as a free
republic fighting off a military tyrant.
The sculpture,
ulate civic pride.
ordered
city
by merchant committees,
for public places
seems to express a similar
civic self-consciousness.
less
the
Banco
(docs. i405-d.i42i) first pro-
awkward Isaiah (1408) for
Cathedral. Like Ghiberti's and Jacopo della
Quercia's
works,
first
it
mixes an undigested
classi-
quotation with a pleasure in linear sweep, but
cal
Nanni, working in the round, carves
a
harder and
denser form into which the folds do not dig tunnels.
He
is
soon mature in the graphic Saint Luke
fig.
14;
done
67),
for the
one of four
over-lifesize
Cathedral by several
of broad characterizing gestures
artists, to a
His next works imitate
work most
literally,
the
is
408-
control
and cleaner
cal forms.
but this
(1
Evangelists
classical
classi-
Roman
obviously a means to
end of massive dignity. Their
active poses
and
light-and-shade arrangements remove any danger of
dead copying.
.All
its
are part of another series,
two
rivals in these
in
the head
and body blend
into a single unit,
realistic textures in face
pose oi Saint
cal
monumake
dignified mass, using the beard to
its
Mark
for the
it is
rich
and hands. The
classi-
Or San Michele
series
provides the saint with autonomy
1)2^
as a freestanding figure, a
new achievement
mon-
in
umental Renaissance sculpture, and the sober power
of
detail of surface adds to the conviction of real-
its
without lessening the weight. These
ity
first
major
works of Donatello evoke the basic Florentine mood
of Giotto,
human, heavy, and dramatic, and suggest
and classical borrowings of Ghiberti
that the Gothic
and others had been useful temporary expedients
when
a
reform was needed. Donatello thus confirms
the direction of his friend Brunelleschi's competition relief (see
fig.
54), and, since he
is
pointing the
main future direction of the Renaissance,
sense Brunelleschi
won
in this
the coinpetition. Donatello
celebrates the establishment of this approach in his
famous
George, also for
Saitit
Or San Michele
(fig.
Rigid in annor, the youth turns his head and
71).
the guilds for the shrine church
stands with feet apart, evoking taut alertness as of a
each guild was represented by
sentinel. Surface lines pull toward focal p>oints, such
patron saint. Ghiberti also produced three of
ranging from a Gothic Jolni the Baptist
(1412-15), with big scallops of folds, to a classical
Saiut
Matthew (1419-22), standing
thin-textured toga
Eligius, in the
memorative
Nanni's
last
(fig.
same
68).
series,
statues
big work
it
of the
is
seriously in a
Like Nanni's Saint
recalls ancient
com-
Demosthenes
type.
an Assum/jlio)! relief over
door of the Cathedral (1414-21;
fig.
69);
its
inter-
the wninkled
as
cloak.
They
eyebrows and the knot of the
illustrate
one of Donatello's favorite
between surface
and
telling schemes, the contrast
and
core: the former
latter a
is
is
active
and complicated, the
simple mass that emerges with the head and
implied everywhere else inside the wrappings.
A
variant interplay between the
the geometric
plex
relief,
is
emphatic
human and
in Donatello's
the bronze plaque of the
first
twining ropes of drapery follow the twisting actions
Salome
for the font of the Siena Baptistery
27;
72).
reverted
at
the
end
10 Gothic.
It is
more
likelv thai.
fig.
in a spatial
Our
com-
Dance of
of the people and have led to the view that Nanni
62
seat-
all
these.-'
a
his
Or San Michele;
commissioned by
of
them
of
famous than
masterpiece. Completely un-Gothic and
first
mental
(begun 141
di
though he
His early death has
ed Saint John the Evangelist (1408-15; fig. 70) by
Donatello (1386 1466), a still younger sculptor's
small works for indoor locations.
a ver% original if
all.
and Donatello.
Nanni's Saint Luke is accompanied by the
with
Nanni
them
projects, Ghiberti
Most of it was executed by three superb artists, who
gave it most of their attention, making few and
duced
he had both vocabular-
for special purposes,
the most classical of
of invasion by the pwwerful duke of Milan, but
instead of reducing patronage, this
command
ies at his
(1423-
eye goes through a series of rooms
game; the dramatic focus
is
the head of
67.
Si.
Nanni
di
70.
Banxo.
Marble, height e'g".
Museo deirOpera
Do.NATtLLO.
John iht Evangtlisl. 1408-15.
Marble, height 6'i 1".
5/.
Lukt. 1408-14.
del
Museo dcll'Opera
Duomo, Florence
69.
Nanni
di
del
Duomo, Florence
Banco.
Assumption oflht Virgin,
center portion of
tympanum,
Porta della Mandorla. 1414-21.
Marble, height of vertical axis I3'3"
Cathedral, Florence
68.
St.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Matthew. 1419-22.
Bronze, height 8'io".
Or San Michele, Florence
71.
DoNATELLO.
Marble, height
5/. Grorgr.
6' it'.
Removed from Or San Michele
Nazionalc. Bargcllo, Florence
10
Museo
the
murdered saint, offered by the executioner to
From
master.
his
this head, lines of centrifugal force
away along the arms and bodies of people
move off from the shock. Thus a muscular
motion through space, measured by geometry, also
stretch
trying to
measures the force of
choreographed in
is
feelings.
Human drama
is
a strict beat. Its technical vehicle
perspective.
Do:iAT£.LLO. Dance of Salome,
72.
panel on baptismal font. 1423-27.
Gilded bronze, 24" square.
Baptistery, Siena
The
19.
Later Brunelleschi and Architectural
Tradition: the Later Ghiberti
Brunelleschi seems to have in\ ented perspectix
its
precise form, almost incidentally, while
drawings in
Rome
of ancient buildings.
It
e,
in
making
turned
out to be useful for painters, allowing them to project their
drawing measurable objects (such
proportion as they are to
as buildings) smaller in
appear farther
off. It
a basic tool; to us
treat the
world
modern
scientific
seetned the height of realism,
it
seems part of a tendency
to
and an early phase of the
method of quantifying nature.
as design,
Brunelleschi also invented machines, especially im-
proved
hoists useful in his
work of building
at a
height, as well as in staging miracle plays with angels
flying (a
we more
kind of pageant
common at
the time, which
often connect with the Baroque). His in-
ventiveness
in a craft
may be
related to his
shop, where skills
background
may tend
to
—not
be accepted,
but as the educated son of a lawyer, almost an amateur.
64
thedral
Soon
after his traumatic loss of the
competition
he went to work in the Ca-
construction and
made himself
into an
architect, in the process inventing Renaissance style
in architecture.
three-dimensional scenes onto two-dimen-
sional surfaces by
and
for the Baptistery doors,
Earlier architecture in Italy
eval.
Taking French Gothic
tional to see
it
is
entirely medi-
as a standard,
it is
tradi-
as a technically inferior variant,
there are indeed
many
and
Italian churches that reflect
French Gothic more or
less
competently. But in a
few the lessening of Gothic structural virtuosity
and demonstrativeness may match a positive
growth in a different direction. The great Franciscan churches seem to show this best. The famous
oddities of the original shrine church at
gun
1228;
fig.
73) are
all
.^ssisi (be-
perhaps explicable by an
assimilation to the qualities of secular or domestic
architecture.
The church
is
in
two
stories,
any distinction in rank, but to provide
use.
Both lack
aisles,
which
is
not with
for heavy-
strange in large
churches of the time, but thev replace the hierarchic
JI.OKIM
\n
u-
I-'
McN
\. c.
A'iniannn ojihi Magi. Hantl. 4 8"
j'g". Uffizi
Gallcn.
Florcii
I
.1
\rii.K
DA Fahriano. Adoration
uj !hi
M
COLORPLATE
1
I
.
MaSOUNO.
The Temptation of Adam
C.I
427. Fresco;
anil Eir
81"^ ^^"
Brancacci Chapel.
Church of the Carmine.
Hum.
COLORPLATE
Fresco. 8'4"
12.
x
ig 7
Masaccio. The Tribute Money, c.1427.
Brancacci Chapel, Church of the Carmine, Florence
".
main and setondary spaces with the sense
Lower
Church soon acquired chapels, which are not secondary pans of the nave space but, again, separated
sense of
of a room, as in a dwelling or city hall. The
rooms, as in a house, with steps and passages.
nearest analogy to this approach
The
the Sainie-Cha-
is
pelle in Paris (1246-48), also with
two
stories of
equal floor area. I'he .Sainte-Chapelle directly betrays a dejjendence
fact that
unlike
it
on secular arrangements
was built
,\ssisi
it
in the
an annex to a palace, but
as
belongs wholeheartedly
to
the
Middle Ages in its typically feudal social distinction
between the stories (the lower for servants, the upper for the king), and of course in
its
pure Gothic
look.
A
73-
Section of
ditfrrent explanation for the iiuiovaiion at
Assisi, that
Upper and Lower Churches,
it
develops out of the ordinary tradition
Basilica of S. Francesco, Assisi.
of churches with
Begun 1228. Lower Church, height 34'9";
Upper Church, height 61',
since crypts are regularly
meant
and are smaller
and
width of transept 92'
c
ry pis
under them,
in area,
.\ssisi
such a cTypt as a third and lowest
else in ItaK in this century
74.
Interior. S. Croce, Florence. Be^uii
1
2c,b
Heit;hi 10
is
is less
to
as
attractive,
contain tombs
possesses just
level.
.Nothing
ambitious
as .Assisi,
Interior, Cathedral, Florence.
75-
Begun 1296 (vaulting begun
Height
width 135'
145',
Benci di Cione and Simone Talenti.
7b.
Loggia dei Lanzi, Piazza della Signoina,
1357).
Florence. 1376-80. 6g'io"x I34'6"x46'
but the Fiaiinbtan churth in Horeiite, Santa Cioce
the Cathedral
(begun 1296;
cup
nated by
its
an interior
74), has
fig.
ceiling of
wooden beams.
that this signifies humility
furnished), or
(the
effect
It is
church
domi-
unlikely
is
richly
incompetence (the Do-
technical
minicans of Florence had just begun vaulting
large church, Santa
meaning
nave
it
is
Maria Novella);
its
tiieir
technical
suggested in the extreme width of the
roofs (between
narrow
aisles)
and the related
dome was
lonieived, as
tlie
biggest
in the world.
While Brunellest hi inherited tliis attitude to
and space, he evidently felt a need for qual-
structure
ities
of stylish emphasis that such plain construc-
tions did not offer.
Romanesque
These he found
in the local
buildings, such as the Baptistery and
San Miniato, with their splendid colored marble
designed
walls
in
neat
square
Thus
patterns.
sparse spacing of the nave columns, connected by
Brunelleschi brings self-aware and expressive artic-
The all-over result is a
The "barnlike" breadth
ulation to tendencies that had gradually developed
huge stretching
arches.
sense of broad spaciousness.
and the
may be
likeness to secular spaces
paralleled
northern Europe, notably in Glouces-
at this date in
ter Cathedral.
The
fourteenth century in Florence, so
late
triumphant
much
like
er in the nineteeth century.-^ In
doing
so,
he
is
most
original in replacing the earlier builders' freehand
secondary in sculpture and painting,
ly
through the simple growth of functions,
Sullivan's contributions to the pre-existing skyscrap-
in architecture.
(begun 1357; fig. 75)
which is famous for
is
its
as
The
is
unexpected-
Cathedral vault
treatment of arithmetical ratios with exact meas-
urements, similar
To
high as that of .\miens,
height
among
the classic
to
innovation of precise
his
perspective.
Cathedral dome, when
tlie
of building
it
in 1419, he
lie
took charge
added height, making
it
Gothic cathedrals; but Florence does not seem so
because it is so much wider, again like Santa Croce,
noticeably pointed instead of almost hemispherical.
with the sense of expansiveness accentuated by the
fewness of the supports. Still more brilliant is the
to
Loggia dei Lanzi (1376-80;
a
pavilion off the
tions that has
main
won
lift
city square,
76), a
ceremonial
one of those
crea-
such popular acceptance that we
tend not to think of
Here the
fig.
it
in
terms of period
at all.
of the columns and their round arches
articulate the qualities of a swelling enclosed space
already achieved in structure.
70
And at
the same time
.\nd on
it
he
set the
and ineasure
its
white ribs which
their shape, springy like
dome
is
banel
for the
as
attention
staves
(fig.
77).
Such
the best possible focus for a city, as since
proved by the imitations from
\'ery tall
call
and the tension of
eight sides
and
people
also round,
who see
it
it
that
Rome to Washington.
lias
a centripetal force
no tower could match,
was instantly recognized when Alberti in 1436
it could hold all the Tuscan
told Brunelleschi that
people in
its
shadow. Again following a partial sug-
gestioii
fiom the
Romanesque
local
dome completely geared
first
to
in Pi&a,
the
it is
being seen from
outside; medieval ones, coated inside with mosaics,
were meant
to
awe the worshiper underneath with
an idea of Heaven.
new Foundling
makes each arched unit
Brunelleschi's porch for the
Hospital (1419-26;
of
78)
front wall the side of a square covered by a
its
tle
fig.
dome. The same shape
iginal
work
to
is
seen also in his
be finished, the Old
lit-
or-
first
.Sacristy
(1420-
added by the .Medici family to their
These square spaces,
29; figs. 79, 80)
parish church of San Lorenzo.
to a
person inside them, have a height humanly pro-
portionate to the square dimensions around him.
we are inside a complete comprewe relate to it rationally, by math-
In tnese buildings
hensible world;
ematics. This
insisted
Renaissance experience.
a
is
on by color accents,
It
for lines of columns
is
and
arches are darker than the curtain wall areas, and
even the floor plan
is
drawn
similarly
under
us.
In Brunelleschi's earlier works the experience
is
of lines, planes, and spaces, but not of solid struc-
ture, since the series of rational parts
77.
FiLIPPO Brunelleschi.
Dome
of Cathedral, Florence. 1419-36.
Height from ground 351'
is
assembled
without allowing for the thickness of walls or
col-
umns, and the
the
78.
total
is
therefore irregular.
FiLiPPO Brlnelleschi. Hospital of the
Innocents, Piazza SS. .Annunziaia, Florence.
1419-26. Height of porch to
(including steps
I
31';
first
cornice
width fincluding
9 arches and flanking pilasters) 180'
It is
FiLiPPO Brunelleschi. Plan,
80.
Florence.
Width of nave
S.
Lorenzo,
31', length
{including choir) 262'.
79S.
FiLiPPO Brunelleschi. Old Sacristy,
Lorenzo, Florence. 1420-29. 35' square
:-
CYYS
fs
_;
4
7i
^
nm
n
f >:
B<
nn
/!
u
Ba.
FiLippo Brunelleschi. Interior,
Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, Florence,
c.
1430-46.
<
<
<
<
<
>
Height to cornice 31'
>
>
c
>
s
?M
->^;.'
81.
.S.
ot
'k'l'V?''^
^
A
FiLippo Brunelleschi. Projected plan
Spirito, Florence.
Begun 1436.
Interior dimensions as built 316' x 182'
83.
FiLippo Brunelleschi. Plan,
Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, Florence.
Main
area 35'8"X59'9"
drawn on
architecture of a geometric diagram
per, not of a
mason. But
complexity
later this
absorbed and indeed celebrated,
is
paalso
typi( ally by scoop-
and marking
The plan
81) is a wide nave,
ing niches into the thickness of walls
with the rational comprehensibility of our environ-
ment and with
the result
each half that width, and chapel niches each
aisles
half
14.S6; fig.
width, which would have
//(«/
as a scalloped w^all.
The aisles and
left
the exterior
niches would also
have continued around the ends of the church, giving
its
space,
standard cross shape the effect of a centralized
one
in
which the person inside
relates to the
circumference surrounding him. But
formula was too extreme
building
it
for those
logical
this
who
finished
after Brunelleschi's death. Earlier, the
Pazzi Chapel was built as a rectangular
three-part ceiling; a
dome on a square
by broad supporting arches
(figs.
room with
base
is
a
flanked
82, 83).
Lines
and wall reflect these three units
above, so that the room becomes a square with side
rectangles and the measured cube of space seems it-
drawn on the
self the
floor
support of the roof. VVe are thus
satisfied
harmony of
is
safe,
and
alive calmness often
noticed as the visitor's resjx)nse.
Brunelleschi's old rival Ghiberti. after the suc-
their proportion to the other spatial units.
of Santo Spirito (begun
a sense that the structure
the
is
Baptisterv' doors,
cess of his
identical
now
commission
in
was given a second
1425 and produced what
"Doors of Paradise"
call the
(fig.
84).
we
These
took another quarter century, so that the two doors
filled his life.
He
discarded the Gothic fi-amesof the
and used only ten large neutral rectangles
for his scenes of the Old Testament. The first rectangles contain many incidents each, but then one
scenes,
group becomes the most prominent, and
one scene
skill in
is
represented. Ghiberti
modeling
to
make
now
finally
only
uses his great
spaces, exploiting per-
and very small gradations of relief to design
marvelous airy halls where his graceful Gothic people freely dance (fig. 85). His conversion to the Renaissance is late, bonowed, and superimposed on
spective
traditional habits, but
suctess,
85.
and
is
may have had
a personal
all
the
and authoritative
Lorenzo Ghiberti. Ston
more
variant.
0/ Jarob.
panel of "Doors of Paradise."
Gilded bronze, 31" square. Baptistery,
Florence
84.
Lorenzo Ghiberti. "Doors
of Paradise"
(East Doors). 1425-47.
Gilded bronze, i8'6"x
Baptister\'.
Florence
12'.
73
Masaccio
20.
(fig.
86),
is
so
dominated bv the perspective
architec-
him by Brunelleschi that
The theme combines the
ture probably designed for
the figures seem small.
image of the three persons of the Trinity with the
narrative of the Crucifixion, the figure of Christ
functioning twice, in each group, and in that way
double nature of Christ
illustrating the idea of the
as
God and man. The
spective
knowledge
artist uses his "realistic" per-
to
subdivide the space in ways
that assist this scholastic symbolizing, in parallel to
Jan van Eyck's use oi bis favorite realistic motif, the
ordinary object, to present symbols (see p. 290).
The
is as diagrammatic as the earlier ones
same Dominican church by Orcagna, Nardo,
and Andrea da Firenze (see p. 46), and is also like
them in that Masaccios other works have no such
painting
in the
Indeed, because people rightly
iconic strictness.
observe that the
new
style has perspective as
obvious hallmark and has .Masaccio
its
most
as its greatest
painter, this painting of perspective by Masaccio has
often been taken to typify the period, without notice
no others
that there are
The
Chapel
frescoes
like
it.
by Masaccio in the Brancacci
Carmelite church
in the
(figs.
87, 88; color-
plates 11. 12). shared with Masolino, are filled with
Donatellian people.
Masaccio.
Fresco, 21'10'x
86.
S.
They
are serious
and heavy,
with sweeping robes, but also throbbingly warm.
Trinity.
lo's".
The
Maria Novella, Florence
pasty color application, with shifting light areas
and almost no
these were
rough
all
on
line, insists
athletes pausing.
They
Thev tend
if
also to be
no other glamour than
lower-class types, with
their bodily presence.
a physical glow, as
are then set in a limited
space, the contained comprehensible world of Bru-
In 1424, probably, Lorenzo
Monaco
died, Gentile
da Fabriano departed from Florence, and Masolino
became the leading painter
demand
in
later in
there.
He was also much
elsewhere, at the court of
Rome, and
Hungary and
so in 1427 he shared
one
of'his
Florentine jobs with a bright young man, Masaccio
(
1
401- 1428). Masaccio had already been encouraged
by the two friends Brunelleschi and Donatello.
rightly saw in
translate their
him someone talented enough
new methods into painting.
Masaccios
in the
74
who
first
to
major work, the Trhiily fresco
Dominican chun
h of .Santa Maria Novella
nelleschi. It is bounded by mountains or buildings
and never recedes to infinity. Thus we see powerful
Donatellian
people in a precise Brunelleschian
location, wliicli
is
like a
Donatello
relief,
ourselves inside a Brunelleschi building.
spective,
its
once
laid out,
is
or like
The
per-
always covered up and
technique not emphasized, so that the space
echoes the vigorous
human
tone.
In the famous
Expulsion from Paradise .\dam strides and Eve
yells, measured against the gate through which
thev have been extruded.
Our
passions
and our
mp;isuring (ap.Kities woi k on a single surface.
The
87.
Masaccio. The Expulsion from
Fresco, 81
"
Paradise.
aa.
its
house* and we read them in terms of
the time sequence of walking, from back to front;
we read
three crippled beggars are being cured, and
them instead from
into
wholeness.
front to back as lameness changes
Where
backward-moving
the forward-moving
series pass
shadow
falling
value of light
painter
I
is
and
each other on their
parallel tracks, the miracle happens, at the
of "now." The healing
caused by
moment
.Sainl
Peter's
on the beggars, and this theme of the
and shade must have delighted the
hus the
mens
acts,
5'3".
oj Ihr
bhadou
.
Brancacci Chapel,
Church of the Carmine, Florence
Miracle of the Shadow carries the same conjunction further. Saints walk fonvard along a street
parallel to
.MASACcro. Miratir
Fresco. -'6"
< 35' Brancacci Chapel,
Church of the Carmine, Florence
the perspetlive. and
the theme coincide absolutelv. The famous Tribute
Money (colorplate 12), where Christ orders Peter to
get money for the ta.\ collector, is a quieter cluster,
a semicircle
of figures before mountains, with pro-
f)ortionate spaces.
rent event, the
It
certainlv
new system
taxes (on the clergv, too). In
pays
homage
affected by a cur-
all this
Masaccio also
to Giotto, using his intensity of weight
and drama. But he
less
is
simple: he elaborates not
only spatial mathematics but
light.
is
in Florence of assessing
He makes
human anatomy and
the Florentine Renaissance
more
and more organized, and when he died
iweiitv-seven. he had hanged painting forever.
vivid
at
<
75
2 1.
Fra Angelico, Uccello
ation. Scilid figures
starry sky, as they
and
sit
or stand before an abstract
sometimes do in
relief sculpture,
similarly in his Coronation of the Virgin
bends up
to
Heaven. But there
is
no such ambiguity
in the little stories of the predella below,
an einpirical
which have
street space like Masaccio's.
and walled depth
is
first
(fig.
and then
89) the exact perspective floor runs back
Measured
completely controlled in
the great Descent fro ni the Cross altarpiece (colorplate 13),
where
figure action.
cross
The
and ladders are
a yardstick of
density of the smoothly
modeled
people seems guaranteed by the cohesion of the
enamel-like piginent, and their location on the
rmi-§MM-^^^
B9.
1
Panel,
RA Angelico. Loronalwn
7' < 6'i
".
i
The
oj the
\
irgiri.
I.ouvre. Paris
The
iiumbei of gieat painters in Florence in Masac-
tio's
age group
1
870.
is
a victim of
garded
as
equaled only by the Paris group of
Fra Angelico (docs.
doting legend.
He
1
4 7-d. 455)
1
1
has long been
re-
an inspired monk, painting sugary devo-
tional images.
to
is
Among them
Such works
exist,
and were thought
have been painted in his early unrecorded years.
But recent study has moved
his birthdate later
about twelve years, so that
this early
by
unrecorded
period does not exist (the works are by his imitators).
He
was trained
as a painter before
Dominican order,
.-^fter
that he
he joined the
no doubt
illustrated
manuscripts, learning his bright enamel coloring,
but in 1429 he emerged with an altarpiece in Masolino's style;^* in
1433 the grand altarpiece for the
(for which a very high price
Linen Drapers Guild
was paid)-* established him
as a leader
of his gener-
90.
Paolo Uccello.
Sir
John Hawkwood. 1436.
Fresco, transferred to canvas, 27' \ 17'.
Cathedral, Florence
76
chessboard by
its
liiniinousuess.
He
shares their
of Genesis, and shows two events in one spate (like
columnar polish with Ghiberti, the other gieat
many works
convert to the Renaissance. Later, recognized as the
lunribered the surfaces, as in Ghiberti's
greatest living painter in Italy, he developed a fuller
Paradise";
apparatus of architectural settings with
symmetry, but he was most influential
lier
classical
in this ear-
Paolo Uccello (1397-1475) was
full
of technical
about mosaic, which he practiced in
curiosity:
his
Italian for bird. His
most famous curiosity
was about perspective, which he kept trying out in
difficult special cases in his
drawings. In his early
tomb monument of
a
The
figures,
"Doors of
matter of special notice).
itself
and the
whom we now see
exit
in
from
damaged
swim and clutch with Donatellian vibrancy,
is an acute mix of himian and carpen-
so that there
tered extremism.
youth, and about animals, which gave him his nick-
name, the
was not
it
The two here are the flood
the ark.
state,
phase.
of this time whenever the stories out-
Uccello's battle scene for the Medici family
mansion was
in three
are
now
that
we do not
split
among
huge
sections.
These unluckily
museums
three
(fig. gi),'"'
see the driving clash of the
so
two cavalry
the soldier of fortune
charges froin the ends, but only the details of capri-
John Hawkwood (1436; fig. 90) the meditation
on the meaty stride of the horse is more conspicuous
cious-seeming bright toy horses, armor and spears
than the perspective understructure of the tomb.
this
frescoed
Sir
But, in contrast with Masaccio,
things pleased
him
for their
Noah's Flood (colorplate 14)
91
Paolo Uccello. The
it is
clear that these
own sake. The
is
fresco of
part of a set of stories
Battle of San
in a rigid perspective net,
and the
hill
walling in
world. Uccello shares .Masaccio's imagery of
human
crisis in
geometric
sonal handwriting of one
clarity,
who
but has the per-
loves seeing
how
it is
put together.
Romanp, center of three panels.
6'
x
lo'S". National Gallery,
London
77
Domenico Veneziano, Fra Filippo Lippi
22.
As an immigrant from Venice
who saw
as
an adult
the start. As soon as he became a full-fledged painter,
new Florentine art when it had reached its full
form, Domenico Veneziano (docs. 1438-d. 1461)
not unnaturally evolved a median blend of it. He
may have brought from X'enice the ideas of Gentile
da Fabriano which show up in his Adnration of the
Magi,^^ with falcons, an enormous peacock, and
he
peacock robes for the courtiers. But even here the
painting was alsosuperbly sure in drawing, sharpen-
the
hedged
fields are
rearranged to
set
up
a contained
Florentine world. His masterpiece, the Saint Lucy
aharpiece (colorplate
15), is a
modern rectangular
panel like Fra .Angelico's later aharpieces, and also
like
him in
the broad
lit
in place. It surpasses
The
surfaces that hold the people
him
in unified equilibrium.
translucent cool tones suggest that the people
are not only steeped in air but in the particular
weather of a sininy spring day. This refinement was
to
Fra Filippo Lippi (1406-1469) belongs with
but
is
three painters,
left
the order to marry.
him invent plump articulate people, often
tones,
He
in grayish
whole paintings being almost neutral
in color.
alone comes close to justifving the tag that the
Florentine school likes form but not color. His slow
ing the contours to catch gestures and movements.
His space accepts the patterns offered
Fra
.\ngelico's
recession
that
to
shifts
backdrop, later on symmetrical
it,
into
halls,
at first
a
flat
and always
fourteenth-century formulas of rocky landscape.
.Al-
though he also records obvious symbolic references
to
an unusual extent,
a healthy
life
his figure
groups communicate
without intensity of feeling or of paint.
His Madonna and Child groups
as a result,
much admired
(fig.
gz) were,
in the nineteenth
century for their pleasant realism, while today he
less
is
appreciated than his contemporaries. But a close
probably the youngest, and also finds the new
look at a moving figure in one of his agreeably con-
\n orphan boy who became
gested crowd scenes will reveal the invention of
he watched Masaccio
nonconventional stances which exploit line and
style already in being.
a
last
the convent, and later
perhaps
be fascinating to younger painters.
the Masaccio generation like the
left
His concern with the three-dimensional body makes
Carmelite
monk
at fifteen,
paint in his convent church and reflects
him from
modeling
for a finely
tuned sense of human
life
process.
92.
Fra
Fii
wiih Birth
ippo Lippi. Madormn and Child
(if
Panel, diamet.
the Virgin:. 1452.
r
W'
Pitti
Palace. Florenre
in
The
23-
We
Later Donatello; Luca della Robbia
have just looked
at
five
remarkable painters
born around 1400 (from 1397 to 1406), who succeeded to a generation born around 13S0 that was
dominated by sculptors (Ghiberti, Brunelleschi,
Nanni di Banco, Donatello). The 1400 gioup proone sculptor. Luca della Robbia (1400whose behavior will only serve to confirm the
duced
just
1482).
The
leading
sculptor continued to be Donatello. In our
modern
dominance of painting
in his time.
context of artist-personalities, most successful
in mid-career
do not
methods
alter their
artists
greatly,
but the great ones keep changing even into old age;
Donatello
the earliest example. .After the
is
George and other Or San
produced one more
set
prophets for the Bell
They
StiinI
Donatello.
Prophti
l"Lo Zuccone''^. from
Bell
Tower. Marble.
height 6'5".
.\Iichele sculptures
he
of big outdoor figures, the
Tower
93.
Museo dell'Opera
del
Duonr
Florence
of Florence Cathedral.
take the contrast between surface and core
The one famous
further (see p. 62).
("Old Pumpkin Head";
fig.
93),
as I.o Zuccoiie
because
it is
such
a
graphically characterized individual, contrasts the
naked skull with the thick
soft robe, flung
shoulder like a too-bulky blanket.
face oi Jeremiah^-
seems
to
The
over the
carved sur-
reproduce a clay sketch
that the artist has pulled at with rapid pressures,
producing willful rivers of twisted stone. Donatello
was also exploring a new kind of
depth that
more
it is
relief, so slight in
incised than carved, yet creat-
ing airy distances; these would seem to imply the
stimulus of painting, though the earliest (partial)
example, in
ings.
A
set
1416,''*
precedes any comparable paint-
of round stucco reliefs ordered bv the
Medici for the spandrels of their Old Sacristy
fig.
79), located
overhead
at
94.
Donatello. Darid.
Bronze, height 62".
(see
Museo Nazionale,
an angle, plays games
Bargcllo, Florence
with illusionary spaces and worms-eye views
as vi-
brant as his stone masses. These works are typical of
the 1430S as small private commissions for reliefs or
single moderate-sized statues, the public ones for
sets
of over-lifesize statues having stopped.
For the .Medici he probably also made the
bronze David
tlingly
a
trip
(fig.
94), a lifesize boy. Its face
is
star-
smooth and symmetrical, perhaps following
to
remains.
Rome where
With
Donatello saw
classical
the DavitI Donatello seems to break
continuity and revert
to
his earliest
work, and
79
DoNATELLO. Music Gallery. 1433-39.
95
Marble, frieze 3'2" X i8'8".
Museo deirOpera
96.
Ll'ca della
Marble, length
Robbu. Organ
Gallen.-.
Duomo,
Florence
1431-
17'.
Museo deirOpera
del
Duomo. Florence
this point,
indeed the second half of his career, after
is
del
analogous to his evolution in the
quiet massive forms to
first half,
active
and
affects
the
more and more
nervous complexity of surface. Stress
from
to
have been the voung
Brunelleschi.
classic
a
Its
artist
most favored by
smooth rounded forms and bland
equilibrium share and perhaps inaugurate
mood
of this moment, seen also in Donatello's
top and
David and Fra Angelico's Descent from the Cross
bottom clamp the pneumatic body between them,
making the whole a neat ornament. In another of
each a semicircle making a niche space of gleaming,
these smaller-scale works, the frieze of dancing chil-
smoothly turned
David only
dren in
in that the
relief,
heavy round forms
made for a music gallery
dral (1433-39;
fig-
95).
probably
to
at
in the Cathe-
hold an organ,
(see colorplate
1
3).
The
figures stand in ten groups,
human columns.
It
is
an expert
presentation of the ideal order constructed from
human
materials,
in
the simplest of traditional
against the strict meter of columns in front of them.
rhythms, clear and self-contained. Vet after this
major start Luca was also affected by the end of big
96) was
sculpture commissions in Florence, and soon turned
not singers, measures the tossing mass of bodies
.A
matching organ
gallery (1431-38;
fig.
major work of Luca della Robbia (14001482). the sculptor who after Masaccio's death seems
the
80
first
to his
famous invention, "Robbia ware"
—glazed
potterv in high relief panels on a big scale (color-
plate 16). It is cheap and indestructible, so that ioda>
examples can be found even in modest museums,
gleaming with undimmed blue and white. It calls
for undetailed
forms and provides the clean lumi-
nousness that Luca already liked. Dependent
less
on depth than on color and surface, the medium is
more like painting than any other sculpture in history, and later was called painting by Leonardo da
Vinci.
Thus Lucas
career confirms the domination
of painting in his generation.
Donatello left Florence for ten years and went
Padua, where a big commission awaited him:
the equestrian statue of the general Gattamelata
to
(1447-53; fig- 97)- O" 'he massive horse, equally
sharp incision marks the rider's rich armor and expressive,
humanly worn
Padua (1447-50)
reliefs
1*
face. .\ large altar also in
f"o*t notable for four big
bronze
of miracles of Saint .Anthony, where the in-
cised perspective buildings are
rough-woven cloth
seventy,
(fig.
98).
worked
Back
in
Donatello pursued an art
as thickly as
Florence at
now
entirely
personal, unrelated to trends of the time.
bronze Judith Killing Holofernes
two
figures, stiff as in a starched
(fig.
The
99^ presents
rough blanket, on
Donatello. Head oi Gatlamtlata, from
his equestrian monument. 1447-53. Bronze,
height of entire work i7'io".
Piazza del Santo, Padua
97.
98.
S.
Donatello. Tht Miracli oj the Angry
Son, panel
on the High Ahar. 1447. Bronze, 22 i/a' x 49".
Antonio, Padua
81
an odd triangular base from which one leg loosely
dangles; a sketchiness and asymmetry used by
previous
artist
are
its
vehicles.
no
The wooden Magda-
lene^* with gilded hair has a similar stiff surface
and
torn face, but alludes to the tradition of images for
worship. Most incredible are the pulpits for San
Lorenzo,^* reliefs whose loose drawing, spatial
ing,
and confusion of bodies
create a world
slic-
where
tensions are not allowed to be resolved, the most
private works of Renaissance art.
99.
DoNATELLO. Judtth
Killing Holo/erm
Bronze, height y'g"- Piazza della Signon
Florence
24.
Albert!
The Masaccio
generation of painters also includes
one great architect, Leon
1472), who, however, had
and did not design
forty-five.
The
a
(1404most surprising career
building until he was about
Battista .Alberti
a
Alberti were the richest merchant
family of Florence in the late fourteenth century,
patrons of the largest chapel in Santa Croce, but
had the not unusual experience of being exiled after
Dante had been). Leon Battista
was born far away, took a law degree, and entered
a political defeat (as
the papal civil service, also developing interests in
philosophy and
Roman
literature.
In
1434, after
the exile had been repealed, he went to Florence
with the pope, and became a friend of Brunelleschi
and Donatello. In a book on painting,^* dedicated
to Brunelleschi,
he expressed his sense that a newfirst writing about
kind of art had been invented, the
Renaissance art and one of the few books on an art
100.
Bernardo Rossellino.
Pienza. Designed 1458.
82
Width
of church facjade 66'6"
Civic Center,
101.
Leo.n Battista Alberti. Exicrior.
S Francesco. Rimini. Designed 1450.
Width of facade 96'
movement
in
section
first
any age by a leading participant.
handbook on
a
is
often treated as the most important. Even there
shows a typical
shift ftoin
it
medieval books, which
emphasize techniques of paint mixing,
intellectual approach.
Its
perspective, today
But the new
art
is
to a
more
really "ex-
plained" more intimately in the second and third
sections,
ric
which involve the relation between geomethuman drama. A
design and the expression of
later
book by Alberti on architecture
ancient
Roman one
by Vitruvius^s as
^' uses
its
an
starting
point but moves to a concept of an ideal city
plan, with
monumental
isolated buildings
on wide
lo^'.
I.FON Battista .\lberii
squares, beautiful in their balanced proportions.
Palazzo Ruccllai, Florence.
This mood
1446 31.65' / 85'.
is
reflected in papal plans for rehabili-
Rome, and
tating
in
the surviving small city of
Pienza ordered by Pope Pius
11
(from 1458;
fig.
100)
from Bernardo Rossellino. Besides an .Mbertian
cathedral and palace,
it
is
remarkable
conscious provision for distant
About 1446
for
its self-
designer and technician. For the lord of Rimini he
Alberti began to design buildings
admiring princes, leaving the construction
others,
He
for
vistas.
whom he often instructed by correspondence.
was thus protected from blame
tion,
to
for faulty execu-
and established the modern
split
between
designed the exterior of the family burial church,
San Francesco, better known by the dynastic name
Fcmpio Malatestiano (executed 1450; fig.
Wrapping a modern screen around a Gothic
of the
101).
interior, Alberti placed
on the front the
first
Renais-
83
Leon Battista Albert:.
104.
Andrea, Mantua.
Width of nave 61', length 380'
Plan,
S.
Leon Battista Alberti. Facade,
103.
Andrea, Mantua. Designed 1470.
Height to top of pediment 75'
S.
Roman
sancechurch facade, adopting the
triumphal
arch design of a central arch and two smaller ones,
separated by columns.
On
the side walls a row of
ment. Indeed,
The
sidered the only logical support for them. Both in
wall, cut into
fiont
and on the
sides the thickness of the wall
is
Soon he designed Palazzo Rucellai
one of the
102),
(fig.
houses.
Here the
and the
wall
is
distinction between the curtain
a
front porch
is
treated as if
it
by a colossal three-story arch contrast-
ing with smaller openings
at
the sides,
articulated with a post-and-lintel skeleton.
contrast
is
again
all
The scale
repeated inside, where the big arch reap-
pears repeatedly
on the
side walls of the nave as
entrances to the chapels. There are no
interior space
is
The
down
aisles.
thus centralized again, driven
the nave tunnel along the rhythmic arcade to the
conceived of as on a farther plane, but on the
are identical in height, the roof heiglns cannot
shown only by difference
street the
whole
is
actually executed as if in
two dimensions. Since the "curtain"
areas between pilasters are largely made upof framed
in
windows, the sense of a skeleton construction
strong. Alberti's last work, Sant'.Andrea in
103,
marquis,
84
it
domed choir. Because the big outer and inner arches
is
the essential motif of the design.
drawing
(figs.
made
Baroque period.
were a very thick
in texture,
narrow
a
of large dramatic units,
The curtain
it is
wall
in Florence
Renaissance town
post-and-lintel construction of pilasters
and cornices
but
earliest
command
favorite object of quotation in the
arches rests on heavy piers, which Alberti con-
strongly articulated, a constant in Alberti's work.
its
emphatically pulled toward the center,
is
104,
105),
his richest
also
is
Mantua
ordered by the local
and most
influential state-
match, a problem not resolved in the design or execution.
Thus
realization
is
the incomplete blend of idea
and
traceable. Yet .•Vlberti, the only Renais-
sance architect before Palladio
who works
primarily
with exteriors (see pp. 235-36), shows in his constant
emphasis on wall thickness his awareness of the
task of articulating the construction.
COLORPLATF.
1
3.
Fra Angki.ico. The
Descent from the Cross.
1.
1432 40. Panel, 9'
^
94". Musco di San Mario. Florrncc
COLORPLAiF
14.
Paolo UccELLO
/
/'
.
1
130. Fresco, y'l"
x i6'9". Green Cloister,
S,
Maria Novella, Flo
coi.oRPi.ATE ij.
DoMENico Veneziaxo.
Si.
Lucv Aliarpicce.
c.1445. Panel, 6'io" x
7'. L'flizi
Gallery, Florence
UULORPLATE
C.I
10.
Lt UA UtLLA RuBBlA. In
440-50. Glazed terracotta, diameter 71"
t'atron oj
Or San
i/ie
i>oc(o
Michele, Florence
\.:idrea,
Between i^yy and
140O, as \vc have seen. h\e re-
markable Florentine painters were born,
pictorial sculptor
as well as
and one late-blooming
archi-
By chance, no other im[>ortant painters were
born until 1421, making a contrast of generations
tect.
easy (just as with the sculptors born
The
around
1380).
painters oi the decade i;}97-i4o6 presented
man's activity and his environment in equipoise.
Through perspective, the cosmos
is
seen walling the
people about, but not dominating them. There
a
92'
Castagno, PoUaiuolo
25.
one
Mantua. Height of na\e
parallel
.\lberti,
to
that
is
emphasis on the hgure. Clastagno ^l42l-l4-,7) and
his close successors
I
lessen the role of the
before either a
fortune but can use his
mind
to
fate
and bad
understand and
discountihem.sothat they cannot defeat
his essential
nature either.
form and space
yields, in the next generation, to
an
space.
emploved
to
en\ironment. Figures stand
wall, or a
from niches not big enough
hill that
blank paint surface or
rama,
drops
all
down behind
for
them or stand on a
to a tiny distant pano-
relationships avoided bv the preceding
generation.
I'he set of
coed
in a
nine famous
country
men and women
villa (fig. 106), a
modern
on the "nine worthies" of medieval
trates this vividly.
tine
This formula of geometric balance between
flat
is
the open sky, and they often eltiow out toward us
the Stoic philosophy expressed by
man cannot change
make man dominant over
heir learned skill in perspective
The
soldier-statesmei\
fres-
variation
halls.-*^ illus-
figures here are three F'loren-
of the recent
past,
three
Florentine writers (Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch),
and three famous women. Thev
differ in tone
—the
89
do most of the elbowing fonvard
soldiers
chiefly single sculptural presences, as
marble
slabs
—but are
hard as the
behind them and influenced by Dona-
niche statues. Castagno's later painted tomb
tello's
del Pollaiuolo (1431-1498),
it is
to
is
an actual sculptor,
so
not strange that he has a quite similar approach
painted figures.
metal,
his
own
They
are not stony but suggest
favored
medium
in
sculpture.
of a general in the Cathedral (i456)'"' typically
Athletic heroes are recurrent: David, the Florentine
90) by
symbol of resistance;'" the martyred Saint Sebas-
modifies Uccello's earlier fresco (see
fig.
eliminating the perspective construction and
in-
tian;*^
the Last Supper for a convent refectory (colorplate
17),
wraps the statuesque
room, and
so,
figures in a perspective
unlike the others, appears to retain
and
especially
Hercules, painted for the
Medici town house (1460). Hercules (figs. 107, 108)
fights and wins in shining anatomical precision of
troducing two muscular pages. His greatest work,
line,
high above exact landscapes that rush back in
low perspective. This new space, which does not en-
the approach of the previous generation of painters.
close the figure but leaves
But in fact it embodies an unresolved contradiction
between two systems of space, one for the figures
isolated
and one for the architecture. The figural space sets
just one man at each end of the table, with room
perhaps for a second, and ten behind the table, and
thus is very wide and shallow; the room measure-
all
the
more statuesquely
sance, but emerges for this purpose only about 1460,
utilizing Flemish procedures. Pollaiuolo's anatomical skill
graved
was
much admired, and he probably
his Battle
an aid to
ments have a much greater depth, exactly half the
width, as proved by the cloth hangings and the
The
it
above the world, seems typically Renais-
artists,
of Ten Xaked
Men
en-
log) as
showing ten variations on the body
in action, again before a shallow, flat
is
(fig.
his onlv engraving,
and the
backdrop.
earliest in Italy
It
by
molding
that runs
we
any distinguished painter or sculptor. Pollaiuolo
accept
the one asserted by the figures, so that this
worked in a great variety of media, including designs
for embroidery (fiom 1466) and a silver panel to be
inserted in a fourteenth-century altar. '' Only in
these "minor art" contexts does he design perspective spaces in the geometric manner of his predecessors, and may thus suggest that it seemed old-
is
under the
ceiling.
fresco, like Castagno's other works,
domination by
And
the
figures,
color
men
figures over a
does illustrate
minor environment.
are sculptures, tough like Masaccio
exuding impact through their density of
and
stoniness.
The
next brilliant painter
106.
space
Andrea del Castagno.
to
fashioned to him.
emerge, ,\ntonio
yiru Famoiu
Men
and
Women
;portion,, frieze troni \
Fresco, each section 8' x 5'3". Cenacolo di S. Apollonia, Florence
ilia
C^arduici,
Legn
loy.
Antonio del Pollaiuolo.
108.
Antonio DEL Pollaiuolo
Hercidfs and the Hydra. Panel, 7" x 5".
Hercules and Antaeus. Panel, 6"
Uffizi Gallcrv', Florence
Uffizi Gallerv-,
Antonio del Pollaiuolo. Bailie of Ten
109.
NewYorl: p..-- -^ -,.- |„ ,.„u p..i:._. p
1.
.\aked Men. Enera\-ine.
1
=;"
4
Florence
/ 23". The Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
Trends
26.
in Florentine Painting at Mid-century
old-fashioned paiiueib biir\i\ed alongside the mod-
matched
ern movement, with
connected with Antoninos idea of what was
The
late
fourteenth-century tradition persists in
such painters
d. 1 452),
as
Bicci
di
Lorenzo
and Lorenzo Monaco's Gothic
richly, as in
( 1
"realism" of perspective.
its
critical
comment and
This
modern
art
environment by
.\Ia.saccio.
This
is
later
called "natural religion," the ancestor of Deism; he
(docs.
1416-
was opposed
persists
more
and super sensuous, shared by medieval scholastics
and modern agnostics alike. His view that the em-
outdoor frescoes in the Cathedral square
445-46). *• But the
in his
was favored b\
the most important patrons.
pirical
to the
concept of religion as irrational
world supports
can also be linked to
faith
the fact that the pioneers of the Renaissance in
thoroughly illustrated by the reaction of the
Florence produce mainly religious works, while
remarkable archbishop .Antonino, who was the onl\
secular w^ork of the time tends to be old-fashioned
saint of Renaissance Florence, the
and Gothic, central^
to a familiar
the close relations of
humanism and
is
first
theorist of
mercantile capitalisin, and a close adviser to the
Medici.
He
attacked the International Gothic style
sance.
The modern
of Gentile da Fabriano as a fiivolous distraction
secular works in
from the holy events depicted, and asked
after
ism and simplicitv in painting, a
1
10.
Besozzo Gozzoli.
set
for natural-
of qualities best
Procession of the
formula about
tiie
Renais-
masters of Florence produce
more than minute amounts onlv
about 1450.
.At
Magi. 1459. Fresco, width about
mid-century
25'. East wall
the
most
impressive
old-
of chapel,
Palazzo Medici. Florence
'>-<>
^mk
inserting portraiLsat the edges of big frescoed scenes,
and the two
fashioned
keeping old-
artists are also alike in
landscape
conventions,
with
Thus Benozzo, who had worked
cliffs.
scoof»ed
for years as
an assistant to Ghiberti and Fra .\ngelico, Ofierates
more old-fashioned end of the available range
work for Florence's greatest secular
patron. He is also happy to copy a king's horse
at the
of styles, in a
literally
like
from Gentile, and todav the work's Gentile-
luxury and anecdote have
[xjpularity. but
it
won
it
a tourist
was evidently not a success with
patrons since Benozzo never got another order in
the city.
He spent
the rest of his long
life in Pisa
and
even smaller provincial towns, where he carefullv
signed himself "Benozzo of Florence.
"
In .Masaccio's revolutionary generation everv
modem
painter was either a
innovator or old-
fashioned, but in Castagno's there are halfway imitators of the
two modern generations. Pesellino
(1422-1457) derives from Filippo Lippi, and also
Domenico \'eneziano, in small, beautifully
drawn scenes of clear, luminous action. The early
work of .Messo Baldovinetti (i 423-1 499) reflects
reflects
Alesso Baldovixetti.
III.
Adoration of the Sh/pherds. 1460-62.
Fresco, dimensions wiihin border I3'4"x 14'.
vers beautifully the translucent voluines of
SS. Annunziaia, Florence
ico \'eneziano's figures,
Domen-
but puts them in the new-
spaces of Pollaiuolo, building
up forms
against the
sky above superb sweeps of low landscape
(fig.
111).
Later he explores the shallow space patterns too,
fashioned painting
is
the Procession of the
Magi
Benozzo Gozzoli (14201497) on the walls of the private chapel of the Medici
mansion. This favorite theme of International
(1459;
Gothic
fig.
is
1
10) frescoed by
treated once again as a delightful cavalcade
with golden ornament.
.At its
tucked
modem
Flemish preference
in,
two ends many
fxir
suggesting more interest in the
traits are
for
real
parti
een
understood
as an artist of second rank, he is not an
exception to the trend of his generation by which
equipoise gives way to the dominant figure.
true that his
work has helped
to
keep alive
It
is
a general
impression that perspective space interested Florentine paiiuers
throughout the fifteenth centurs. rather
than a partij ular generation.
9;?
Trends in Florentine Sculpture at Mid-century
2 7-
the type of Ghiberti's two Baptistery doors and the
sets
Or San Michele,
of statues for
Ji;;^lpfe^i
new
see
were
projects
Then about
finished off, others stopped.
Tower,
the Bell
and the Cathedral. Some of the older
1450 we
sculptural types which emphasize private
ownership, indoor location, sophisticated
collect-
and celebration of the individual: the portrait
bust, the small bronze, and a greater role for tombs.
ing,
Style has a parallel change.
Michelozzo (1396-1472) worked for years as
contem-
assistant or junior partner to various of his
He made
poraries, especially Donatello.
mark
his
with the tomb of the papal secretary Aragazzi, in
Montepulciano (finished 1438; fig.
literally classical than other work of
12). It
1
more
is
that date, even
Luca della Robbia's, in the airless juxtaposition of
It also makes its subject archae-
cylindrical people.
ological, apparently reflecting the patron's schol112-
MlCHU
C'7
7n Mll.HH n//l
arly interests.
BaTtolommeo Aragazzi Bidding Farewell
to
It
may be noted
that, consistent
His Family,
the preponderance of nonsecular
from tomb of Bartolommeo Aragazzi. 1438.
Marble, 30" X 29" (withoul restored side frames).
humanists and modern
Cathedral, Montepulciano
tact.
A
artists
work
had rather
slight con-
humanist might order
successful
with
at the time,
tomb,
a
and both groups shared a curiosity about Roman
sculpture, but neither group was much involved
If,
instead of scanning one sculptor's whole career
and then another's,
all in
drop
as
is
usual,
the decade of the 1440s,
we looked
we would
at
them
notice a
in sculpture in Florence. Donatello. after thirty
with the other's chief concerns.
when humanists
praise
an
It
seems typical that
artist in their writings
(showing that they could),
it is
not a
modern
Flor-
entine, but Pisanello.
did
.Agostino di Duccio (141 8-1481), in reliefs for
not bring commissions to others. Luca della Robbia
churches in Rimini and Perugia, created a strange
years at work, went
left
away
for a decade, yet that
work unfinished and turned
to his ceramic pro-
flat style,
in
almost entirely from sculpture to architecture, and
its first
the most promising youth, .Agostino di
text
Duccio,
emigrated. Even a faithful hack, Bernardo Ciuffagni,
constantly busy earlier, suddenly vanishes
Thus almost no
sculpture was
from
all
done
in Florence; in the 1450s, there
records.
was a revival,
but without any of the large-scale projects typical of
1401-34. This seems to be related to the greatest
political
change in
a century, the shift of
power
in
1434 from the guild committees to Cosimo de' Medici. .\t
once no desire was
felt for
outdoor monu-
ments, expressive of community consciousness, of
94
with drapery swirling around hard bodies
curved parallel
duction. Michelozzo (soon to be noticed) turned
(fig.
which
lines. It
appearance
1
13),
,-\lberti
suggests that
it
not a Gothic line, and
decorating the church in Rimini for
designed the exterior
was meant
imitation, reflecting the
.\ttic vases
is
in a learned archaeological con-
(see
fig.
as a variant type of
101).
Roman
ornament we know on neo-
and Anetine pottery.
When young
sculptors again
emerge in Florvehement
ence, thev seem interested in isolated
figures, like those in Castagno's paintings,
diluted by a pleasure in
1
ic
h.
tion. Pollaiuolo's bronzes, the
but often
polished ornamenta-
most brilliant work
of the time, will be considered separately (see
p. 113).
I
13.
A(JOSTINO
DI
Dl
cclo. Salurri.
Marble, 54 1/2" >" 36 1/2".
Chapel of the Planets, S. Francesco, Rimini
115.
DeSIDERIO DA SeTTIGNANO.
.Inff:
In
the Tabernacle of the Sacrament. 1461.
Marble, height 36".
Bernardo
architect
sculpture
S.
Lorenzo, Florence
Rosselliiio (1409-1464), also active as
under the wing of Alberti,
by
is
an
inspired in
His greatest pleasure
Michelozzo.
seems to be in refined moldings and frames, of the
kind now generally regarded
as "typical
Renais-
and especially for tabernacles to hold the sacrament were very influential.
His chief work was the tomb of Leonardo Bruni
sance." His shapes for doors
(d.
1444;
fig.
ii.j),
conceived as a wall tabernacle
with delicate ornamental figures but focusing on
(lie
sensitive portrait. If
it
was produced soon
after
the deatii of Bruni. the chancellor of the Florentine
republic,
it
would be the most ambitious work of
the decade, but
1
14.
Bfrnardo
Leonardo Bruni
S.
RossEi.i.iNO. Effi^v.
(d. 14441.
Croce, Florence
on toml)
Marble width
io'4
it
mav
well ha\e been delaved. like
most tombs.
Desiderio da Settignano's (docs. 1453-d. 1464)
chief works are
still
another tabernacle for the
sac-
95
Bernardo's youngest brother, .\ntonio Rossellino (1.J27-1479), swings between suave
reliefs,
tors,
many
and tough
to ancient
Sebastian
Madonna
times repeated in low relief by imitaportrait busts of old
Roman
(fig.
1
types.
hard body
16), a
men
that allude
His Castagno-like Saint
in expressive spiral
motion, seems surprising after the delicate Madonnas,
but makes
umental tomb,
who
tive
surprising that his most
less
it
died in Florence."*" lacks his brother's decora-
boxed unity and
forceful statues.
Mino da
A
splits visuallv into its
similar doubleness
Fiesole (1429-1484),
for smiling
brutal realism.
who
fig.
The
117).
Antonio Rossellino. Sl
altar dossal.
Marble, height
c.
Sehns/ian.
pini,'*'
(fig.
1
15),
now an
established institution.
he
and the tomb of Carlo Marsup-
accepting the formulas of Bernardo. In his time he
was labeled "lovely and sweet.
so
much
figure,
thin
immensely refined and
smiles
but his giace
is
women and
Under
civilized.
and alabaster glow of
not
his
the
heads of
diildren there are tougher skulls than
photogiaphs suggest, and
with fresh extitement
96
"
in decoration as in the treatment of the
his nngcls
lift
iheir lieads
also
unity of tone
tells
56".
the next chancellor of the republic, both
most famous
produced the
Pino
as the Piero
among
all
these
us that the Florentine Renaissance was
carvers
Galleria della Collegiata, Empoli
rament
various
striking in
with rocky jaws and
''^^Sttar,
16.
is
examples of the portrait bust, such
de' Mi'dici (1453;
1
who
is
cherubs and for tombs of almost two-
dimensional delicacy but
first
mon-
Portuguese cardinal-prince
for a
dr' Mrtiiei.
1453.
Marble, height 18".
Museo Xazinnale,
B.irgrlln. Fin
Michelozzo and Florentine Architecture
28.
The
small sculpiures and
ilic
setulai paintings ol
new kind of building, the pala//.o.
The word need not mean palate, but town house,
1450 adorn a
mansion,
A
building.
in other contexts, just
or,
Renaissance visual type for dwellings
is first
seen in
1440s, a quarter-century later than churches
the
and public buildings. 1 he three pioneer examples
are .^Ibertis Palazzo Rucellai (see
Palazzo Pitti (145H), which seems
though
its
later
102), the
fig.
less
inventive
enlargement and royal use
(see p.
233) perhaps encouraged a tradition that Brunel-
had designed
leschi
it
—and
Medici by
Palazzo
Michelozzo (probably begun 1444; fig. 118). Michelozzo was Cosiino de' Medici's favorite builder,
constructing his country retreats and the churches
he endowed.
A project by
Brunelleschi for the town
house was rejected by Cosimo
according to a report, yet
it
as too pretentious,
may be
reflected in the
one masterpiece, a
contrast to the annexes and
finished version, Michelozzo's
complete structure
in
remodeling that generally occupied him. Its sudden appearance, mature in the first example of the
building type,
may
also suggest that
it is
simply the
natural way to transform the older Florentine house,
which was
tall
street floor.
and
is
and narrow, often with shops on the
Palazzo Medici eliminates the shops
wider, and thus can create a squarish balance
We
of width and height.
are invited to read the
qualities of each story through changes in texture
the rough stone blocks at the bottom, as of a fortress,
1
the cm squares in tliemiddle, the completely smooth
—
top
a lightening that suggests lessened weight
receding perspective. The whole
is
then ftamed
18.
Michelozzo Michelozzi.
Exterior,
Palazzo Medici, Florence. Begun 1444.
Height 80 '6"
and
at
upward journey by the grand
defining the building as a unit and prevent
the far end of the eye's
cornice,
ing
it
from floating against the
removal of the shops
assists the
sky.
the three stories, the corner of the
used for a public port
ground
floor
h, latei filled in. It all
was
seemed
using essential Renaissance
a classic forinulation.
axioms
.Mthough the
analogies between
Vet Miclielozzo's
l.ilei
(1444-").'):
empirical quality.
He
hg-
ma joi work
'
'9)
.it
Sanlissiina
shows none
ol this
lemodeleil the interior, and
loloiniaded
a s(|iiaie
domed
com
t
in front, a
(
ircular
choir at the other end (executed later with
changes), and
some other aimexes. These spatiallv
on concepts about
self-tonscious innovations, based
ancient
Roman
cal for the
easily.
.\nnunziata
added
the
li
building, were attacked as impracti-
church services because the opening from
main nave
into the
round choir was too naiTOW.
seems ironic that the
ments were provided by
tiecessary practical adjust.-Mberii, the architect
whom
97
we think
of as a theorist in contrast to the builder
Michelozzo. In fact the two architects shared the
same classicism and excitement about centrally
planned spaces, which may thus be regarded as
dominant in the mood of the time. After Michelozzo
left
Florence in 1455 under attacks on his
the trends of the following years there are
skill,
less clear,
and only about 1475 does another strong personal
style
I
Michelozzo Michelozzi.
ig.
SS. Annunziala, Florence.
emerge.
Plan,
Remodeling
begun 1444. Total length 314'.
width of nave 26'
Sienese Painting in the Early Fifteenth Century
29.
Siena was by
Its
own
now
painters
a
backwater with a glorious
seemed pleased
past.
to repeat tradition,
though interested in suggestions from Florence.
The most
talented, Sassetta (docs, from
1423-d.
1450), was rediscovered in the late nineteenth cen-
tury
and much liked
an "available primitive"
as
of the Fra .\ngelico type, medieval enough to suggest
high-minded purity but modern enough
comfortablv
realistic (fig. 120).
to
be
His suavely incised
line
and
his pleasure in elaborate
tify
him
readily as Sienese, but the absence of anv
immediate ancestry has disturbed
of him.
When some
deep spaces iden-
critical
treatments
of the more poster-like paint-
him were recognized as the work of
to modern Florence,
especially Fra Angelico. But his simplv modeled
doll-like smiling people, moving on errands of goodings related to
imitators, he
was tied closely
ness through wide bright spaces, are better associ-
ated with a slightly earlier moment in Florence, with
Ghiberti (who visited Siena in Sassettas youth).
From him
lar bodies,
Sassetta learned to place
with precise
120.
Sassetta.
Chastity,
St.
Francis Meeting Poverty
and Obedience, from an altarpiece.
Panel, 34''X2r.
98
smoothly tubu-
folds, in well-constructed
Mus*e Conde, Chantilh
buildings.
little
was
Ii
a natural
attachment, since
Ghiberti admired the great Sienese of the past. Sassetta only loses a little of Ghiberti's bodily flexibility,
and adds
a sensitive color
harmony implying
fresh air.
More
truly Gothic
di Paolo (docs.
and primitive, Giovanni
1423-1482) adapts Sassetta's patterns
with a repetitive stylization
(fig.
121).
Very
tall
as
of folk-art schemas
thin people, with incised con-
and incised renderings of the veins
tours
in their
hands, walk through perspective fields where the
parallel hedges are incised.
The
of a sophisticated source
clear,
is
peasant reduction
and
its
iconic ab-
straction has a special appeal to part of twentieth-
century
taste.
Two other painters looked at newer Florentine
devices than did Sassetta. though with
less
sureness
of instinct. Domenicodi Bartolo's (docs. 1428-1444)
realism of facial details and anecdotes of costumed
crowds seem
a response to Gentile
visit to Siena,
da Fabriano's
and show the younger generation's
capacity to modernize Gentile with organized space
and cool harmonies of color much as Domeiiico
Veneziano does. The boldest, even desperate, effort
to
jump
into the Renaissance
who
(docs. 1428-d. 1480),
is
made by
insisted
on
Vecchietta
richly
mod-
eled figures steeped in changing light to the point of
strained caricature. Unlike any of the rest, he did
much work away from
Siena,
and eventually solved
the problem by turning to sculpture. Indeed Nfichelozzo,
was in
who was
his teens,
at
work nearby when
N'ecchietta
seems to have been the stimulus
his painting style, to
judge from the
stifT
for
but ex-
aggeratedly active figure types. \'ecchietta's abortive
revolution in painting and his very handsome Donatellian bronzes of later years usher into the city
an
art that
is
satisfactorily
Renaissance but
er Sienese in the traditional sense in
is
the
name
of a
tio
long-
which the term
style.
121.
Giovanni
di
U'ildenuis. Panel,
.Art Institute.
Paolo.
27"
.S(.
John
in iht
• 14".
Chicago.
Mr. and Mrs. Martin
.A.
Ryerson Collfciion
99
Piero della Francesca
30.
tomb, and
little
was already
a
or no interest in perspective. Piero
prominent
local citizen,
and soon was
receiving job offers from lords and churches of that
area and even beyond. His most famous work, the
fresco cycle of the
was begun in
this
Legend of the Wood of he Cross,
same energetic vein for the main
I
chapel of the P'ranciscan church
colorplate 18).
The theme was
cal of these provincial
medieval
of
ics
rope.
stories that
wood from
The
in
Arezzo
123;
(fig.
old-fashioned, typi-
commissions, based on the
had grown up around the
rel-
the cross in the churches of Eu-
account
starts
with Adam's death, and
shows us striding and mourning people, anatomical1\
sophisticated
and passionately dramatic, strung
out on the shallow stage.
at this
have the smooth
in the air that
had
to
been inteiTupted by
exposure
also
Domenico V'eneziano.
point Piero's work seems
been so important
But
They
and exact placing
translticency
a visit to
Rome
to
have
(1458-59) and
ideas about city planning,
to .\lberti's
with their sense for clear geometric space measurements. This
that has
123.
group
'.-,"
Working
Florence as an assistant to
in
Domenico
V'eneziano, the
young painter Piero
(docs.
1492) evidently participated in the
i.t39-d.
invention of the
new
style of the
della Francesca
muscular figure
along with Castagno, the inost talented Florentine
of his
own
age.
Such
at least
is
one of
tire
(onstructing his beginniTigs, after which,
ways of
re-
we know,
he returned to his small native town of .Sansepolcro,
ill
the hills between ,\rezzo and Perugia.
view his
first
major work
local city hall
seems
to
(fig.
is
122),
On
this
the Resiirreclion for the
which indeed Castagno
have echoed in a work of about 1447.^"
Piero's fresco
is
a
masterpiece of this
style,
with the
bony and drooping flesh of the large-eyed figun
rigidly looming over ilie flat marble slal)s ot ilu
100
no
may have
literal
triggered in Piero something
precedent, and
is
Piero della Francesca. Death of Adam.
work
at right. Fresco, entire
•;'-,"
S.
Franrpsrn, .\rfzzo
a
new
aspect
ol ReiiaissaiKC p.iinimjj. In itu- lest of the frescoes
of the Arezito
with the famous (hirrii
series, starting
of Sheba scene, and then in the liaplism aharpiece
and the small Flagcllalion
kiient
turn
figures
124, 125), the trans-
(figs.
remote, expressioidess
into
counters in a pure geometric world.
with the
They stand
of coluinns, alive only in the inten-
fixity
of their forin and light. Perspective became so
sity
important that
same modern
wrote a book about
I'iero
after .Alberli's.'"*
first
This
the
it,
appealed to the
art has
developed in coiniection
taste that
with Cezanne and Seurat.
In later years Piero relaxes to
tlie
point of be
ing interested in particular things, portraits, and
textures, especially shining ones like jewels
water; the double portrait of the count
ess
and
and count
of Urbino^^ shows all these concerns. Hisreseardi
attitude toward light also led
him
to a nottunial
fresco in the .Arezzo series, the Dini/n af (.onsldiitine,
which
is
a
drama of optical
abstraction. Pieros
elegant control of the adjustments of proportion
between
areas, in scale
and
color,
is
very
much
ot
abandonment
and is what makes
the Renaissance, but his temporary
of
human
him most
expressiveness
not,
is
effective today. His intense cultivation of
pure forms may be connected with
his
Other
ence
artists
(for
from
his retiring
Florentine training to his remote
little
town.
of great talent with a similar experi-
example. El Greco, Georges de
la
Tour,
and Cezanne) have tended to rely less and less on a
link to nature and more and more on reworking
their
own
stylistic patterns,
from obscurity
to
and
all
of these einerged
fame dminj) the carlv twentieth
century.
125
Piero
DEI. I. A
Flagellation. Panel,
Francesca.
23" ^32".
Galleria Nazionale (idle Marili.
Ducal Palace, Urbino
1
24.
Piero della Francesca. Baptism.
Panel, 66"
X 45". National Gallery, London
3
1
The
.
Pisanello
and Jacopo
version of International Gotliic that Gentile
da Fabriano took from Venice to Florence in 1423
was assimilated as part of a recent Gothic revival in
Florence, but in Venice
it
was a subtle amendment
of the established Gothic past; very
little
Bellini
books survive from Florence
evidently kept
ornamental
The
From
this
the AiniHiic
(Milan, Verona,
"Lorenzo Monaco
vocabulary, generally in the vein of Simone Martini; their
masterpiece was the tomb of Can Grande
della Scala (see
to
fig.
As in Florence, Gothic seems
53).
have taken two visual forms.
One
is
an art of
piece in painting
as
1425-1438) in Verona
like Gentile
line but
The other,
da Fabriano's, makes patterns not from
from beautiful
ly decorative
in this context
made common
is
artists'
at this
A
on parchment,
the fresco oi Saint George Res(fig.
126).
Tales of chivalry are
it
Morte
d' Arthur,^-
be seen here and
dreams of feudalism
had never been imagined
actual feudal age.
The
be during the
to
princess in her
the knight in his chased armor are
less
ermine and
notable than
the horses in their trappings, which provide an-
notebooks of drawings,
by Giovannino de' Grassi
who
whose sweaty gravity seems the more imposing.
Pisanello's
drawings (many now assembled
And
in
a
notebook^S) are also keener than Giovannino de'
Grassi's in being
quick sketches, not standard motifs
to
be traced. Their success has hidden their quality,
book, 5" one sculpture, and some manuscript
as
many
Milanese
illuminations. Like others, his sketchbcxjk
sizes
is
has only left
(docs. 1389-d. 1398), a
this
in the
other example of the real decorative object, but one
date because parchment was
is
is
vein, but soon the influence of
both are equal-
giving way to cheaper paper. Theearliest of interest,
still
"
notable new vehicle
real objects;
and luxurious.
artists'
His earliest work, a fresco of
Verona (1423-24),^'
typical pleasures of this culture, to
and Stefano da Zevio
(docs.
in
iiilioii
elling the Princess
in Malory's
the most polished painter in this style.
of
Gentile da Fabriano transforms him. His master-
ornamental rhythmic line like Lorenzo Monaco's,
is
were
emerges one great master, Pisanello
(docs. 1422-d. 1455).
other north Italian towns with their feudal courts
Ferrara) also favored a Gothic
memoranda
not as
inotifs,
at this time; they
treated as mines for repeating
observations.
done there
earlier could be related to the Renaissance.
when
empha-
costumes and animals, including exotic ones
monkeys, greyhounds, and leopards.
No
such note-
duller imitations were soon
his originals.
What
is
probably
mixed
in with
a typical early
draw-
ing (though sometimes thought to be by another
artist)
is
the Allegory of Lust, ^* a
12b.
Si.
nude
.\ntonio Pisanello.
George Rescuing the Princea.
Fresco, ig'G"
x
.\Iusco Civico,
io'8".
Verona
girl in
an
Antonio Pisanf.llo.
127Medal of V'ittorino da Feltre
Antonio Pisasello.
28.
Medal of King Alfonso of Naples,
Bronze, diameter
Bronze, diameter 4 1/4".
1
2 5/8".
reverse.
National Gallen.' of Art, Washington, D.C.
National Gallery of Art. Washington, D.C.
Samuel H. Kress Collection
elaborate peacock-like hairdo, spiavvling on boii\
reform of the courtly formula by the un-
hips; the
conventional direct vision
^^^j^RPI^
'V^^^^^^^
n,
f
'
"1
typical of Pisanello.
is
.«
He works
within existing formulas but sharpens
them; he
one of the gieat noinevolutionaiy
is
artists,
but a reforming one.
His most surprising novelty
is
p
'
the reinvention
of the bronze medal, of which he remains to this
day the one complete master. His medals are not
and stamped
die-cut
(like coins)
they are small sculptures
repeatable portraits, at
(figs.
first
but
r
cast, so that
127, 128).
They
are
luxurious favors that
1
hand
lords could
out, like autogiaphed photographs
today, yet soon including the poor
man
j
but respect-
ed teacher Vittorino da Feltre, and other scholars.
The
backs show pictorial mottoes, chosen by the
worked out by
subjects but freely
for the
Pisanello.
One
•1.
king of Naples, with a nude leaping on a
boar and a greyhound beside it, shows how in the
new medium courtly motifs could still be made to
come alive. As these medals mark the individualism
of the
Opus
I'isaiii
proportion of the
other works
Venice
politically
mark the artist's; the usual
must take a larger
surface than signatures on anv
they also
sitters,
signature.
ol
Picloris,
an.
in
129.
the touneenth centui)
pan of
the Balkans
had been
more than of
Italy
Jacopo Bellini.
The Beheading of John
British
and had produced Byzantine painters while
the Baptist.
right hair Pencil, 16" x 13".
Museum, London
receiv-
ing visiting Gothic ones from north Italy. Late in
the century
its
own
painters were Gothic, too, but
lO.S
around
1420, as the city turned
its
interests to the
control of the nearby mainland, Venetian painting
entered the Renaissance.
finally
Fabriano went from there
When
to Florence,
Venetian assistant Jacopo Bellini
his
1470).
There
is
Gentile da
he took along
(docs. 1424-d.
a notable analogy in the works of
structures .Mtichiero
him, again, mainly from notebooks of drawings,^^
point of reshaping subject matter
draw the
figures of
magnifying the
Bartolo: all depend on Gentile
shadowed modeling, but throw away
the accompanying courtly apparatus and replace it
with excitement about perspective. In all of them
\isual innovation
Domenico di
for their soft
an
e\
(fig.
1
29).
to the
He
will
ent small and at one side,
scale of the building
and making
the flow of space the heart of the effect, a genuine
which
When
tion going.
it
sets a great X'enetian tradi-
appears in landscape,
independent flowing of
at
and
air
light.
have been explicit in his paintings,
perspective tends to be
from the
atic,
more luxuriant than systemproducing colonnades to infinity and nests ol
nas, ^^
spiderweb arches. Jacopo's \ersion leans on the
tonal ism.
32.
Padua (see fig.
and we know
in
lost,
which stretch the perspective experiments
Jacopo Bellini, Masolino (the Florentine whose
work changed under Gentile's impact), and the
Sienese
had painted
His paintings are largely
52).
if
it
hints
This may
we may infer
Madon-
of several surviving small
latest
which replaces contours with gently subdued
Mantegna
Jacopo
founded
\'enetian
literal sense,
through
Bellini
painting in the
Renaissance
his family.
His
manicd .Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506),
phenomenon who at eighteen was beginning to
daugiiter
the
produce
his
frescoes,
nearby
He had
masterpiece, the Ovetari Chapel
in his native
naturallv been
Padua
los
first
much
whose emphasis on
and space construction was easily
translatable into painting.
sharp contours
fine
1448).
attracted to Donatel-
reliefs (see fig. g8),
incised drawing
Is
Padua (begun
of the
He
renders not only the
keyed-up people, but an equal-
network of gauzy threads
in their blueprinted
environment, neatly factual and detailed. His future
tather-in-law stimulated .Mantegna
s
hobby of the
archaeological recording of ruins (as did his local
t
eacher), but
more important, he affected .Mantegna
s
sense of space. In the later parts of the Ovetari Chapel.
er's
Mantegna adjusts the perspective to the viewposition on the floor below and makes people
project forward fiom the picture plane, erasing the
line
130).
between the picture space and our space
This
is
tulate that perspective sets
1
Andrea Mantegna.
30.
Execution. Fresco (destroyed
I
I'l
"
I
St.
James Led
to
;,
X 10' 10". including borders.
Ovetari Chapel, Church of the Eremiiani,
Padua
(fig.
contrary to the usual Florentine pos-
up
a balanced, self-con-
tained cosmos in the picture, a packaged totality.
Its
sources are
some
slighter but suggestive experi-
ments by Donatelloand Jacopo
Bellini withaconiin-
(
VMA,.v.,
/.„,/
v,;^,.
,
,,-„
h
ApoUuiua. FL
VMqpPMHHHWaM
COLORPLATE
i8.
Fresco, lo'i
"
i
PiERO DELLA Francesca.
Stoty oj iht Queeti of Sheba (detail of
x 2^'^" (entire scenei. S. Francesco, Arezzo
group
at left), c.1460.
CuLoRi'i-Ait iy.
Camera
MaS
dcgli Sposi.
i
tt^iSA. Jxeiutii iu
UvHU
Ducal Palace. Mantua
uj
LuiuiHai (jVlt^U^U. 1474.
1
rc»LU, Wlljlll
COLORPLATE
20.
Sandro Botticelli.
Spring. C.I 478. Panel, 6'8"
io'4". Uffiizi GalliT>. Flurence
131.
.Andrea Ma.stegxa.
EnlhroTud Madonna with Saints,
San Zeno Triptych. 1457-59.
Each panel 86" x 45".
S.
Zeno, Verona originak of
predella
panek in Mus^e des
Tour, and The Louvre,
Beau.x-.\rts.
Paris;
uum of space in which people are minor incidents.
When Mantegna opens up the sky behind the stage
too, the effect
is
that of a line of vision
becoming intense
in the
reverting to lower intensity as
The
finity.
it
continues to
it
is
basic to \'enetian Renais-
evolves in Giorgione and Titian.
Mantegna, who
is
experimenter, develops
nothing
this
if
not a constant
idiom in
his great
Zeno triptych of the .Madonna and Saints
The
in-
and
single continuity of space inside
outside the painting
sance art as
from our eye
segment of drama and then
figures are inside a roofless porch.
San
(fig.
131).
Its
front
columns are the carved frame of the altarpiece (as,
long ago, in Pietro Lorenzetti; see fig. 40), which
thus push in front of the picture plane and are also
reciprocal with the far piers that take us into the
open
blue. In another experiment, in
one of the
predella scenes originally beneath, the ground drops
down toward
figures far
see
us at the front,
marked by foreground
rest so that we only
enough below the
them from the waist up. They look into the
becoming an equivalent for ourselves; such
scene,
predella panels are naturally a critical point for
contact with the obser\er.
experiments
132),
is
The most famous of these
the foreshortened
where the rationally
Dead
Christ
132.
Andrea Mantegna. Dtad
Chnst.
Caavas, 27" x 32". Brera, Milan
(fig.
yet violently distorted
luy
image
is
used to assert the shock of tragedy, and the
projectile effect of the feet involves us.
The marquis of Mantua, who needed
his court not
merely with
art
to
adorn
but with a celebrated
the emerging role of the artist as
and entrepreneur), induced Mantegna
painter with a large salary which .Mantegna
artist (reflecting
personality
to
be his
used to build a mansion to
His masterpiece
cycle all
and
for the
fig.
own
learned design.
is
a fresco
around one room, showing the inarquis
his family in
1474;
his
marquis' palace
ceremonial activities (finished
room was
133, colorplate 19). Since the
no doubt used for the same sorts of ceremonies, the
uniform flow of reality from viewer into picture is
evoked in a further and startling way. .Again people
with massively
realistic faces step in front of the
picture plane established by the framing pilasters.
But the most famous spatial
Mantegna opened up
a
trick
view of the
is
sky,
the ceiling:
with people
(some mythological cupids, some the marquis' Negro
servants) looking
It
is
down at us as we look up
(fig.
1
34).
Andrea Mantegna. Ceiling,
134.
Camera dcgli Sposi. 1474- Fresco, diameter 60"
Ducal Palace, Mantua
another logical but spectacular extension of
133-
.^^DREA Manteg.na. The Duke of Mantua and His
degli Sposi, Ducal Palace, Mantua
Court. 1474. Fresco, entire wall ig'S"
Camera
^jj-'^sait^'^ <;*4iiii
M
^^*:^^.
He
some of
the spate through the stage segment, letting the
motion.
eye continue on a straight line to infinity. Here and
well as his mastery of incisive drawing in engrav-
in
his
work Mantegna damped
which were the
his
linear
ings,
constructions with broader modeling
(e.g.,
in the
They kept
Parnassus, 1497,''" for the study of the
young mar-
later
chioness Isabella), with gentler landscape and easier
Ferrara
33.
The dukes of Ferrara were great
importers of artists:
in the
1440s they had .\lberti, Pisanello, Jacopo
Bellini,
and Piero
della Francesca, in 1450 Rogier
van der Weyden. But then by luck
emerged, producing a
ers
who
work
a local school
series of three brilliant paint-
again begin by responding 10 Donatellos
in
Padua nearby; the connection was eased
no doubt by
.\iccol6 Baroncelli, a bronze sculptor
and pupil of Donatello's who
lived in Ferrara from
1443 until his death in 1453. Cosimo Tura (docs.
1430-d. 1495)
is
chiefly a painter of single figures,
sometimes a court allegory but often
reality
comes from
his brilliant
ed meul, bent in fanciful
a saint.
Their
imiution of burnishnot only in
intricacy',
robes but in gesturing arms and turning heads
(fig.
and tortured
135). Donatello literally strained
the metal in his
\2tie
Judith
(see
fig.
99),
implying
psychological stress in the figure; the fact that
metal which
is
manent condition, and thus an
Tura,
irretrievable fate.
like other provincial imitators of subtle
creations
(e.g.,
it is
contorted makes the tension a per-
Giovanni
di Paolo,
with
urban
whom Tura
shares a fashion today), rigidifies such pulling forces
into decorative pattern
cally,
The
and
line and, characteristi-
does not vary them during a forty-year career.
ultimate
more
effect, far
than Giovanni di Paolo's,
is
sophisticated indeed
of a shining filigree of
twining glittering forms.
135.
Tht
Cosimo TuR.*
Virgin
and Child Enthroned,
center panel of aliarpiecc. 94" x 40"
National Galler\-,
London
circulated
tur>' art
his
finest
his
compositions as
by any
artist in
Italy.
fame alive when most fifteenth
liiinhi'l
Medici. 1472. Marble and bronze, height
VIII. 1498. Bronze, height of rectangle and
lunette about 13'. St. Peter's, Vatican, Rome
of opening
15'.
Old
Sacristy, S. Lorenzo,
Florence
in a great variety of
media. But
the stone sculptors, the effect
is
in all
of them, like
made by combining
ornamental frames and tough Castagno-like heads.
X'errocchio's early
its
work
is all
bronze ornament, but
grandeur of scale and original design already
lift it
from
a decorative level.
the Medici (1472;
fig.
140)
is
a
His tomb
for
two of
handsome porphyry
sarcopiiagus encased in bronze foliage, beneath a
tall lattice
of bronze rope.
The
ropes pull thickly,
the closest to active realism possible in ornament.
So we are not surprised that his bronze David^"
is
a
Castagno type, stringy-tendoned and almost
smiling, an apprentice in the street with
the classicism of Donatello's David.
It is
none of
also splen-
did technically, with the most precise embroidery
stitched
on the
shirt. X'errocchio
commission of the generation
14
received the largest
(fig.
141), for a
two
figure
gioup
to replace
when
one
saint in the old
Or San
became
a patron (i46.-,-83). In the niche Christ stands and
is approached by .Saint Thomas, who reaches out to
.\Iichele set
a different organization
touch His W'Ound doubtingly.
Thomas
is
of the niche, like a Castagno soldier (see
Christ
is
more remote
and the
cally central,
in the
niche
is
psychologically,
partly out
hierati-
spatial diffiruliv of the
X'errocchio's paintings were few, but he
The most
Christ
142), again a
(fig.
They
group
elegantly handled.
large shop.
figures.
106);
fig.
and
significant
is
had
a
the Baptism of
composition of two related
stand high above the horizon as in
other paintings of this generation, and the irregularities
of the stringy bodies are silhouetted.
The
metallic precision of flesh surfaces in X'errocchio's
painted figures w-as a fornnila imitated by
many
Andrea DEL Verrocchio.
141.
Christ
and
Doiifititig
Andrea DEL \'errocchu>
142.
and Leonardo da V'incl
Baptism 0/ Christ. Panel, 69" x 59"
Thomas. 1467.
Bronze, height y's".
Florence
Or San
Michele,
Uffizi Gallery-, Florence
provincial painters (such as Matteo di Ciovanni in
Siena, Fiorenzo di Lorenzo in Perugia).
Verrocchio, too,
left
Florence for a big com-
mission, an equestrian statue in Venice (1481;
143),
but he died before
ument
it
Bartolonieo Colleoni,
to a general,
fig.
was finished. This monis
the
only rival to Donatellos Gatlainclula in Padua (see
fig.
97), less
and more
profound but
The
energetic.
at
once more decorative
converse of the earlier
popping eyes are as
ornament as active realism may come. The
strength of the work is the surprising synthesis ol
active bronze ropes, here the
close to
these diverse qualities.
143.
Andrea DEL X'errocchio.
monument of Bartolommeo
Equestrian
Begun
Campo
1
48 1. Bronze, height
13'.
SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice
Colleoni.
35-
Antonello da Messina; Francesco Laurana
Naples plays almost no role in Renaissance art. After
when
the early fourteenth century,
Simone Martini, Tino
Giotto,
others
the visits of
Camaino, and
their marks, a century of civil war betw'een
left
dynasties
The
ground.
sterile
left
di
brief conquest
about 1440 by the connoisseur-king Rene of Anjou
brought modern methods of painting from Flanders
to the leading local painter,
Colantonio
(see p. 298).
King Rene was overthrown by the more
fonso of Aragon,
many
is
artists'
.-M-
stories
(fig.
work in which the
less marked than the
personalities are
the astrological frescoes at Ferrara; see
Sculptors are recorded
p. 112).
stable
ascendency with
a gateway, a feudal
kiTig's (as in
places,
his
triumphal arch of many
a spectacular
144). It
who marked
who came from many
but they functioned like members of a me-
dieval cathedral workshop. Aside from the influence
of a recent
work
very literally
is
modeled
in
Naples by Michelozzo,®' the
Roman, with
figure type
style
a relaxed, broadly
and neutral
space. After the
king's death the sculptors scattered again, but
some
work can be found.
later effects of their
Antonello da Messina (docs. 1457-d. 1479)
started painting in his native Sicily in the provincial
reflection of the late medieval Spanish style
was normal there.
He no doubt
which
traveled to Naples
and learned about recent Flemish painting, but
great
moment was
his
the discovery at thirty-five or so
of Piero della Francesca's most luminous and formal
work, probably in Rome.
on
it
He creates his own
variant
in paintings, nearly all small heads: Christ,
Mary, and secular
portraits.
smooth geometry indeed, with
on an egglike
some of
skull,
Piero's.
The
They
are of a verv
light often
gleaming
but not as remote in feeling as
close-ups of faces with a droop-
ing lip or swiveled eye, sometimes supported by a
lifted
hand or the emphasized measurement of
space between head and hand, provide concentral
ed images of states of feeling.
traits
144.
Beeun
and (he
sm.TJl scile are
The
Triumphal Arch. Castel Nuovo. Naples.
'43!^ Height 125'. widih 2g'6"
liking for por
themsehes Flemish
I
}3.
Vi.
Antonello da Messina.
Jeromf
in
His Study. Panel, 18" / 14"
\aiional Gallery.
and one elaborate work,
tastes,
Sliidy
(fig.
145).
fills
Saint
Jerome
London
in His
hard light-box with small
a
objects everywhere that
show how
more
a
literal
Flemish sense of the world was potential in Antonello
lian
all
(fig.
the time.
146)
is
One
larger panel of SainI Sehas-
again a single concentrated smooth
form, here not the egg of a head but the cylinder of
a
body.
We
have
lost
.Vntonello's
largest
set
of
works, painted, in a continuation of his wanderings,
in
Venice. There this backwoods genius had an
unexpected
model
to
to
success,
for
the altarpiece
became a
young N'enetian painters who were seeking
out of luminous
make threediincnsional forms
(olor alone.
146.
Antonello da
.\Iei>sina. Si. Sekasiian.
Panel, transferred to canvas. 67"
OrmalHr^alrrie. Dresden
\
34".
The Dalmatian
Lauiana
Francesco
(docs.
)458-d.i502), one of the carvers of King Alfonso's
triumphal arch,
Rene and
there
France
fled to
emerged
as a
best of the generation after
to the rival
King
maker of medals, the
Pisanello. With wide
blank edges, they build up portraits of Louis XI of
and others
P'rance
that are strongly characterful
with simplified form; perhaps this
of an easily influenced
context of
But
traits.
Roman
it
also at thirty-five,
when he returned
His Madonnas there, and his por-
Sicily.
soon
traits
the
carving to one of Flemish por-
hardly prepares us for Laurana's sud-
den maturing,
south to
the reaction
is
move from
artist to a
after, in
Naples again, for princesses in
the circle of King Alfonso's son Ferrante, are limited
in
range and expressiveness but perfect and unfor-
147). As mannered portraits, they have
seemed to typih' Renaissance culture.
The halfoint
of abstrac;t]on.
^'^
149),
t
n
a
>v
/ii
L
also
(see
where
stylized^with^oljl
rfvpniid
The
engraving
(fig.
villas,
had small bronzes and collections
the
Magi employ exact
if
miinterested perspective.
His continuing attachment to the Medici after
their
makes
fall
it
unlikely that he was a devotee of
Savonarola's antiluxurious evangelism^^ as has been
supposed. Savonarola's theme of
God
destroying
the wicked city appears in just one of Botticelli's
works, *^ which thus
remarkable
late
may be
work
is
a client's order.
the Xalivily (1500;
A more
fig.
150),
with a strange prophetic inscription, an archaistic
composition derived from the Fra Angelico tradi-
and angels whose
tion,
linear
bending patterns do
indeed distort their bodies with expressive
effect.
unshaded modeling had
become obsolete; he could get no work, and died
But in
his last years his
drawings for Dante's
unfinished
His
forgotten.
Divine Comedy^*
may be
of these years.
Ghirlandaio (1449-1494), a successful painter
all his life, was perhaps the first to
of fresco cycles
rework the
spatial
fonnula of his predecessors' pred1400 generation,
ecessors, the painters of the
set-
up narratives neatly and symmetrically in rooms
or on similar stages. But within them the details
ting
are new-, especially the small anecdotal objects of
daily
that
life
mark the pleased discovery of Flemish
methods. This particularism has a larger
effect in
portraiture. Earlier, clients of frescoes could have
among
their portraits in a corner,
a miracle, or
figures.
Saxdro Botticelli.
ijo.
Canvas. 43
"
29
x
".
.\fl/!!i/).
1500.
could even pose
as
the onlookers of
models
main
modern
for the
But Ghirlandaio paints them
in
dress in front of the tableau of the traditional sub-
National Gallery, London
jects, offering
two
and pageant. In
levels of reality as of
audience
his cycle of Saint Francis (complet
ed 1485) the most masterly scene, the Approval 0/
the FroTuiscan Rule (fig. 151), wraps portraits of
of older and ancient
an and
cultivated the fashion
of neo-Platonism. This teaches, in
to spiritual versions of themselves
wipe out the original physical
long to this world, and
his style,
terms,
intro-
which
factors. Botticelli's
goddesses of love, grace, and wisdom be-
classical
bodily
literan dif-
and beauty
fused version, that physical love
duce us
its
so,
more
intrinsically, does
whose formalist extremism tends
life.
and
But
this
is
to
deny
only true in comparative
a close look at his
most linear arabesques,
as in the thiji igterlacedji a^nds
of the Gra ceVi_shp*N^
accurate drawing and firm, massive modeling.
To
avoid lying^otTTceTR^toadecadent syndrome, we
may
in
recall that a
20
Antonio
and
his fiiends
around three
work.
a fourteenth-centurv
is
sides of the
closely derived
The background
photographic view of Florence. There
is
from
is
a
a reversal
of the Florentine assumption that the ordering of
reality
is
superior to the details. Ghirlandaio
is at
Old
Man
his finest in separate pwrtraits, notably the
and
a Little
nose
is
filling
trait,
Boy
(fig.
152).
The
old man's diseased
not more emphasized than the sense of love
the space between the two heads. In a
p>or-
Ghirlandaio can even invent a comjxjsition.
Benedetto da Maiano (1442-1497) is the Ghirlandaio of sculpture. His vivid bust of Pietro Mellini (1474; fig.
15.^)
modifies pwrtrait sculpture by
His portraits are
covering the head with wrinkles and the shoulders
Rossellino's, while his .Adorations of
with embroidery, shifting the emphasis from mass
comparison
like
contemjxjrary called him "virile"
the patron
formal composition, which
to other painters.
niiitt
*j
fl
¥
«L
oignanc\-,
glazing the simplified surfaces and
with light
coming
10 rest
137
173.
.-2.
Giovanni Bellini. Agony
F^anel.
32" X 50". National Gallen*. London
in Ike
Garden.
Giovanni Bellini.
Madomm
and Child with Two
SainLf.
4" 29 7,8".
Accademia. \"enice
Panel. 21
i
in the streaky twilight backgiound.
Giovanni
The
first
great
Paolo (1464),"^
altarpiece,
for Sanii
gives us the
same sharply placed, cool-toned people.
Space
is
stretched
far, as
by
all
e
the Bellini painters,
but in a new way, without Jacopo's improbable
intricacy
and
scale contrast,
.Mantegna's forward
landscape vignettes, always atmospherically fresh,
and separate
in space
and psychology from the quite
conventional devotional figures in front
Bellini's art
sibility,
is
both in
its
innovations and
svstemizing; the two of
and more optical;
the viewer's eye, focusing on the main figures, incidentally finds whatever is beyond them in the
same sightline. Giovanni therefore provides a "second theme far beyond the people, a sunset or
town or populated landscape on which we come to
with .Matisse and
one would expect,
is
easier
"
rest at the horizon.
138
Thus
begiti
Bellini's
famous
173).
its
acceptance
of routines, in contrast to Mantegna's conceptual
pressure, or Gentile's lateral probes. Giovanni's,
as
(fig.
one of straightforward painterly sen-
is
them might be compared
Pica,sso.
In compositions Bellini
quite willing to follow formulas, but he
lutely
independent
color, air,
and
in
is
abso-
the appearances of things,
space.
1475 he was drawn away from Mantegna
by the attraction of .•\ntonello da Messina. This
In
led to the Pesaro altarpiece,*"' a traditional comfwsi-
741/.
Giovanni Bellini.
Francis in Ealasy.
'and, 49"
56".
Copyright The Frick Collection,
sc\\
York
1
75.
John
GlAMBATTISTA CiMA.
tkt Baplisl
Panel. 10'
.S.
tion with
its
less linear;
as
is
plete
figures
smoothly
set in place
but
still
they are glowing and cylindrically taut,
panorama of a comtown behind. The Rfsurreclion*^ poses
also the vigorously fresh
hill
oddly jointed people, perhaps reused from another
subject, in live textures, before a wild sunrise. Light
is
even more [xjwerful
(fig.
air
174),
where the
on the other
—
as in
Transfiguration of
light
may be
in Saint Francis in Ecstasy
figure
on one side looks
at the
—and
in the
Jacopo Bellini
In both, a heavenly
Christ.'*''
part of the subject,
making people
warm. Light's
more pervasive in works
the San Giobbe altarpiece.'*"
freeze in place, yet itself pleasingly
influence
on form
is still
of standard design like
Madonna
the Frari altarpiece of 1,188,** or the
0/
the Trecs,^^ where the calm formal people are suffused by
iLs
slight diinness. abolishing definite edges.
Both these tendencies appear
in the strange Sn< ri-d
Allegory (colorplate 24), a masterpiece where the
lack of interrelationship between the small, formal
figures has left the subject matter puzzling. Since
Giovanni does not show concern with
his themes,
those not standard are not comprehensible. Here
the people contemplate the central space, or meditate,
while behind a river a complicated mountain
in honey-colored light
is
filled
with incidents.
.Sen-
^
and
Saints.
6'9".
Maria dell'Ono, Venice
to
sibility
nature, and
light
it
has
brought forth a poetry of
in the old age of the artist,
velops a late aesthetic
ists tiiaii
to his
still
further discoveries
who,
like Doiiatello, de-
will lead to
own
more
related to younger art-
generation (see
1473-1517), painting brilliant forms in light with
fig. 22(j).
Antonello da Messina had a basic
effect
people looming over bright deserts;
Bartolommeo .Montagna (docs. i467-d.i523) began
a long series of Madonnas having beautifully adjusted triangular designs; and Giambattista Cima (docs.
crystalline
on
other talented painters in Venice. Alvise V'ivarini
equal exactitude, enlivened them with scattered
foliage
1438-1303), also the scion of a family of
(fig.
painters (his uncles had reflected Gentile da Fa-
ricli
(docs.
briano and Mantegna),
now began
painting
tall
ers
and pebbles picked out
like coins in the
173). In this context of sensibility there
sun
was a
giowth of beautiful pictures by talented paint-
with minimal individuality.
Supplementary Notes to Part
1.
St.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa
Thrologica, written 1266-73.
One
Francesco Traini, aliarpiece of St. Dominic, Museo Civico,
20.
Pisa.
2.
Nicola Pisano. Fontana Maggiore. Perugia.
3.
Eero Saarinen (1910-1961), son of
Eliel
Saarinen
1950), a di.stinguished environmental architect.
The
in his father's architectural office until the lalter's death,
became an
architect of great structural ingenuity
and
Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron, written 1348-53.
22.
Fra Domenico Cavaica,
Padri {Lives of the
Vile dei Santi
Holy Fathers), written before 1342.
and monu-
Tommaso da Modena. Portraits of Dominican Saints, meeting
23.
room of the Dominican convent, Tre\iso.
mentality.
4.
21.
1873-
son worked
Giovanni Pisano,
now removed
figures for exterior of Baptistery. Pisa
to interior of building.
24.
Guariento, twenty-nine panels now
Civico,
.\Iusco
in
Padua.
Francis altarpiece, Bardi Chapel, S. Croce, Florence.
5.
St.
6.
Magdalene
7.
The
25.
other
altarpiece.
is
the
Accademia, Florence.
Madomia and Child
at S.
at
Maria
dei Ser\'i,
Orvieto.
8.
Guide da Siena. Madonna and
9.
Cimabue,
Michele.
:
in addition to the
St. Stephen for
two statues mentioned
the Linen Drapers Guild.
26.
Donatello: in addition to the two statues mentioned at Or
San Michele, St. Louis of Toulouse for the council of the Guelph
party ^now in Museo Nazionale, Bargelio, Florence).
Child, City Hall, Siena.
27.
San Domenico. Arezzu.
Criicijix,
Lorenzo Ghiberti
Or San
Louis H. Sullivan (1856-1924), a pioneer of the Chicago
School of architecture,
10.
Giotto, fresco cycles in S.
Chapel
Francis, Bardi
;
of St.
lives
Croce, Florence:
John
the Baptist
life
and
of
St.
St.
John
1
1
Duccio, Madonna with
the
Thret Franciscans. Pinacoteca.
Duccio, Maesla. Museo dell'Opera del
(panels in pinnacles
altarpiece,
13.
del
14.
now
and
Duomo, Siena
and some from back of
numerous collections).
predella,
dispersed in
29.
30.
di
del
Duomo.
al the
Tomb, from the
.\1aesta,
32.
Siena.
Camaino. tomb of C-ardinal Riccardo
Petroni,
33.
Pisano, doors
now on
Florence; twenty-four panels of the
south side of the Baptistery,
life
7.
Madonna and Child with
and Assumption. Church of the Pieve, Arczzo.
Pietro Lorcnzetti, altarpiece of the
Saints, Annunciation,
18.
Ambrogio
19.
The
di S.
for
the Linen Drapers Guild,
Marco, Florence.
Paolo Uccello, Battle of San Romano (dismantled
now in
London; Uffizi Gallery, Florence; and
:
1
Paris.
Domenico
X'eneziano, Adoration of
the
Magi, Siaatliche
Donatello,
Jeremiah,
Museo dell'Dpcra
Duomo,
del
Donatello,
George,
St.
Or San
George and the Dragon, marble relief below
Michele, Florence.
Mary Magdalene,
34.
Donatello,
35.
Donatello: two bronze pulpits catted with
Baptistery, Florence.
of John the Baptist and
the Virtues.
1
di S.
Florence.
St.
Andrea
Museo
Museen, Berlin-Dahlem.
Cathedral, Siena.
16.
Peter .Martyr altarpiece,
Fra Angelico, altarpiece
The Louvre,
31.
Siena.
Duccio, The Three Marys
Tino
St.
the National Gallery,
Duccio, Denial 0/ Peter, from the Maestd. Museo delTOpera
Duomo,
Museo deirOpera
13.
Fra Angelico,
Museo
Siena.
12.
28.
.Marco, Florence.
the Evangelist, Peruzzi Chapel.
Lorcnzetti, .innunciation. Pinacoteca, Siena.
Passion of Christ, Pentecost, and the
reliefs
martyrdom of
St.
of the
Law-
rence; on either side of nave, S. Lorenzo, Florence.
(6.
Leon
Battista Albcrti, Delia pitlura
:
written in Latin, 1435;
I>ublished in Italian, 1436.
Little
Flowers of St. Francis, account formulated in the
fourteenth century from older versions; published 1476.
37.
A\beni.DereaediJicaiori3.
completed 1452, published 1485.
141
38.
De
Vitruvius,
(On
archilectura
Architecture),
century B.C.: published in Latin, i486;
written
first
in Italian, 1521.
masterpiece
his
39.
The Nine
Guido Mazzoni, sculptural groups in terracotta of religious
Modena, Cremona. Ferrara, and Venice;
58.
subjects, in Busseto,
century; consists of three Old Testament heroes, three pagan
59.
heroes, three medieval Christian heroes.
Grottoes,
40.
Andrea
Castagno,
del
.S'iccoli
da
Tolentino,
Cathedral,
Florence.
41.
the Lamentation, S.
Anna dei Lombardi,
Naples.
60.
Antonio del Pollaiuolo, tomb of Pope Sixtus IV, Vatican
Rome.
Andrea
del Verrocchio, David,
Museo Nazionale,
Bargello,
Florence.
Antonio del Pollaiuolo, David
r:r/on'owj,Staatliche
Museen,
Berlin-Dahlem.
42.
is
Worthies, a popular theme in the fourteenth
61.
Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Martyrdom of St.
Sebastian,
National
Michelozzo, Cardinal Rainaldo Brancacci monument.
Angelo a
S.
62.
Nilo, Naples.
Battista Sforza. countess of L'rbino; see above, note 49.
Gallery, London.
Antonio di Tucci Maneiti. probable author of the biography of Brunelleschi.
63.
43.
Antonio
del Pollaiuolo, Birth of John the Baptist, silver relief
panel for altar frontal. Baptistery, Florence;
deirOpera
del
Duomo,
now
Museo
in
Florence.
64.
Bust of Giotto, by Benedetto da
epitaph by
.\Iaiano;
Politian '1490).
44.
St.
Peter Martyr, on exterior of
Settignano,
tomb of Chancellor Carlo
Frescoes of the
of
life
Loggia del Bigallo, Florence
da
Desiderio
45.
Marsuppini,
S.
65.
66.
who
Croce, Florence.
Botticelli, St, Sebastian, Staatliche
Church through
Antonio Rossellino. tomb of the Cardinal of Portugal,
46.
S.
47.
-Andrea del Castagno. Resurrection. Cenacolo di S. .^pol-
lonia, Florence.
48.
his
Florentine political
67.
(i
writing and preaching.
life
church corruption led
Miniato, Florence.
Museen, Berlin-Dahlem.
452-1 4951, a Dominican monk
came to Florence from Ferrara and called for reform of the
Girolamo Savonarola
from 1494 on, but
condemnation
to his
Botticelli, Mystic Crucifixion.
Fogg
.\rt
He dominated
his accusations
to
of
death by burning.
Museum. Harvard
University, Cainbridge, Mass.
Piero della Francesca,
De prospectiva pingendi {On
Perspective
68.
Botticelli,
drawings
for
Dante's Divine Comedy, presented
in
Kupferstichkabinett. Berlin-Dahlem. and the Vatican Library,
in Painting).
Rome.
49.
Piero della Francesca. two portraits Federigo da Montejeltro,
:
and
Count of L'rbino.
Galler\\ Florence.
On
Benedetto da Maiano, pulpit with narrati\'e panels depict-
Battista Sforza. Countess of L'rbino. Uffizi
69.
the back of the count's panel. The Triumph
ing the
of the Count, aecompanied by
the
Cardinal Virtues
:
life'
of
Francis, S. Croce, Florence.
St.
on the back of the
countess' panel. The Triumph of the Countess, accompanied by the
70.
Theological Virtues.
of Moses; right wall, scenes from the
in
Giovannino
50.
Bergamo.
de'
Grassi.
sketchbook.
Biblioteca
Sistine
Chapel wall
Cosimo
the crew were
frescoes: left wall, scenes
life
from the
life
of Christ. Other painters
Rosellt. Pinturicchio. Piero di
Cosimo.
Civica,
71.
Perugino,
Crucifixion.
S.
Maria Maddalena
Pazzi.
dei
Florence.
51.
Pisanello.
Annunciation,
Brenzoni
tomb.
Church of
S.
Fermo, Verona.
72.
Pinturicchio, frescoes of the Hfe of
Pope Pius
II
(Aeneas
SiK'ius Piccolomini). Piccolomini Library', Cathedral, Siena.
Thomas Malory,
32.
Sir
53.
Pisanello, the Vallardi
who
sold
.\1orte
d. Arthur, finished 1469-70.
73.
Pinturicchio, fresco series in the six Borgia .Apartments,
\'atican.
it
to the
Codex, so called
Louvre, Paris,
in
1856.
after the
Other drawings
in
74.
numerous museums.
Pisanello, Allegory of Lust, drawing. .Albcrtina. Vienna.
55.
Jacopo
on paper,
British
56.
Jacopo
57.
Mantegna,
notebooks: on vellum.
The Louvre.
Luca
of S. Bernardino, S.
Maria
76.
Melozzo da
Signorelli, Scourging of Christ, Brera, Milan.
Forli,
dome of Sacristy
of St. Mark, Basilica of
the Santa Casa, Loreto.
.Madonna and Child, .^ccademia, Venice
77.
142
life
Rome.
75.
Paris;
Museum, London.
Bellini,
Pinturicchio, frescoes of the
d'.Aracoeli,
54.
Bellini,
Rome.
owner
Parnassus.
The Louvre,
Paris.
Francesco
civile e militare
di Giorgio,
Turin Codex:
Trallato di architettura
[Treatise on Civil and Military Architecture), written
after 1482, containing
drawings and measurements of ancient
buildings.
83.
Giovanni
Sebastian,
Bellini, St. Vincent between Sti. Christopher and
with Annunciation and PietA above, SS. Giovanni e
Paolo. \'enice.
Vincenzo Foppa.
78.
gamo.
Crucifixion,
Accademia Carrara, Ber-
Vincenzo Foppa. frescoes of the life of
Cappella Portinari, S. Eustorgio, Milan.
79.
8e^^I>estroyed, with works by
many o ther
St.
Peter Martyr,
artists, in th e fire
of
Bellini,
87.
Giovanni
Bellini, tUsurrection. Staailiche
88.
di
Pietro
Lombardo, tomb of Antonio
Roselli, S. Antonio,
Padua.
82.
Giovanni
Pietro
Pesaro altarpiece, Pinacoteca, Pesaro.
Muscen, Berlin-
Dahlem.
57781.
86.
89.
Giovanni
Bellini, Trarufiguration 0/ Christ,
Museo
N'azionale
Capodimonte, Naples.
Giovanni
Bellini,
S.
Giobbe
altarpiece.
Accademia,
Venice.
Lombardo. tomb of Dante. Cathedral. Ravenna.
90.
Giovanni
Bellini, Frari altarpiece. Sacristy. S.
Maria dei
Frari, Venice.
83.
Niccolo deir
.Area,
tomb
[arcai
of
Oomenico, Bologna.
84.
Giovanni
Bellini, Pirla, Brera.
St.
Dominic,
S.
91.
Giovanni
Bellini, .\iadonna of the Trees.
.Accademia, Venice.
Milan.
\r^
PART
TWO
The
High Renaissance
in Italy
SL
I'l'l.tMl-
\
1
ARN
\()
1
i:S.
I'ACiKS
2(j'2-2t)3
1/6.
Leonardo da
\'i.nci.
Adoration of the Magi.
Begun 1481. Panel
8'
^
8'i
".
Uffizi Gallery, Florence
Leonardo
to
500
i
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-15 19), one of N'errocchio's
pupils, stayed in his shop for some years as a
foreman painter, and there produced the first High
many
Renaissance painting. V'errocchio painted his Bafitism of Christ (see
142) in his familiar style,
fig.
with wiry, real figures and a low perspective.
.\s
usual in this story, two angels hold the clothes, but
One
they are painted in different ways.
with a neat contour
line,
round
eyes,
has a face
and shiny
hair,
up straight; the other turns its neck like a
swan, and has fluffy hair into which one sees, and
and
sits
one
eyes into which
also sees, just as
the jewels, like pools. This figure
is
one does into
by Leonardo,
and so tcxa is a part of the landscape that is a continuum of dim light rather than a stack of rocks.
He may
flesh
also have retouched Christ's skin, yielding
unlike the linear
nardo
is
metal of John's. Leo-
strict
presenting a further level of visual realism,
available only
tered: things
when an
earlier level has
do not heve boundary
but yield
new
side. Life
to
other things as they begin to turn a
is
a
continuum of organic motion,
been mas-
lines,
like the angel's
turning neck and many things that Leonardo later
drew with
special interest: water, grassy plants, hair,
the action of running, dust
as processes. It
had created
artists
a
—
all
not so
much
things
was recognized at once that Leonardo
modern kind of
found \'errocchio and
art,
all his
and younger
generation
stiff
and unsubtle. This is alreadv the High Renaissance,
which was quickly to produce so many particularly
famous
Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian.
artists:
reason for this
is
.\
177.
that painting was felt to be actually
improving technically
as
it
became more
Leonardo DA
\'i.Nci. Virgin
of ihi Roch.
Panel, transferred to canvas, 78"X48''.
realistic
The Louvre.
Paris
older artists were cast aside), but this group
(so
reached the
final stage
of realism (and so remained
honor); later generations could not continue
in
further in the
the
same direction, but only rearrange
same elements.
Before the Baptism, Leonardo had probabh
blocked out in a light brown tone on a deep brown
painted the more traditional Annunciation,^ and
background, so that they seem
the portrait of Ginevra de' Benci,^ with shadowy
out of caves.
water and skin but lacquered hair. His
read the picture better, one sees the extraordinary
commission was
(1481;
he
fig.
left to
176),
for
first
the Adoration of the
big
Magi
which remained unfinished (when
work for the duke of Milan) with
the figures
When one
dynamics of the people's
of
drama with tremulous
with leaping horses
is
at first to
be leaning
has looked long enough to
moment
The background
lives, reflecting a
variety.
equally in the process of a
147
Leonardo da
moment. But
at the
\'inci. Last Supper.
1495-97- Mural, is'g"
same time Leonardo rethought
the traditional composition of this story, which
showed two groups meeting each other in profile,
the Holy Family and the Three Magi, a natural
treatment. Leonardo gives it a central emphasis and
thus a stronger focus on the Holy Family. He is like
a scientist in that he observes
but also
likes to
intently
deduce regular schemes from them,
laws or patterns; both the
are
phenomena
more complex than
that
it is
suits
Livtt
Milan (1495-97;
Supper
Sg-
Leonardo,
177).
The
ca\e
who remarked
for a
i?*^)-
monks' refectory
148
a pattern of three, three,
he reorganized the old
group photograph. He sub
painting soon
irot
through which he hoped
one,
paint
oils,
to gain
it
lost its
in tlie usual
an experiment
more shadow.
Experiments, not always successful, were stimulated
bv his universal curiosity about
li\e.
He
things
work
for
lioped to cast in bronze a statue of a
man on a leaping horse,
Roman coins, but had to
effort,
how
and he couldn't take any tradition
using a design seen on
settle for a
more modest
with a quietly walking horse that carries the
weight of the bronze on
in
The
technique but used
fresco
Milan
three, while also heightening the sense of
the spontaneous instant.
granted.
(fig.
delle Grazie.
color because Leonardo did
composi-
design of this theme, which had been a low ol
thirteen people like a
and
The same
helpful to paint people in the shade.
In the
three,
and
before.
Maria
divided them into
the order
Milan, a central group in a cave
an old motif which
29'io". Refectop,. S.
phenomena and
tion recurs in the Virgin of the Rocks painted in
is
"<
all
four
feet.''
His revolv-
ing stage worked, but his project for a canal failed.
.\t
this
time he was also keeping anatoiriical note-
books and exploring the basis of architectural
proportions.
Filippino Lippi and Piero di Cosimo
2.
Young
Kloreiuiiie painters of the
nardos impact
i.jHos felt
I,eo
once, even in his absence, some-
at
what shifting the center of gravity from the methods
of the dominant figures, Botticelli and Ghirlandaio,
who had
fonried their
own methods
in the 14705.
Filippino Lippi (docs. i467-d.i504)
an apprentice
to his father Filippo
is
and
obscure
as
later as
an
assistant to Botticelli, but then emerges with an
approach built on Ghirlandaio's. He too takes
perspective space to be routine, often
making
it
symmetrical, and pays homage to the old masters,
most strikingly when he modifies
in
adding scenes
(a
Brancacci Chapel fresco
to Masaccio's unfinished
cycle (see p. 74).
his personal style
typical enterprise of the time)
Homage
to the past
and
to exotic
Flanders join in his early masterpiece. Saint Bernard's vision of the Virgin
closely derived
(fig.
179), a
composition
from Rogier van der Weyden's
Siiinl
FiMPPiNo
180,
Lippi.
Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas. 1488-93.
Fresco, width of wall 7'io".
CarafJa Chapel, S. Maria sopra Minerva.
I'aiiiling
l.iikc
\
Virgin (see
Ilit-
fig.
Rome
374), so con-
eniently similar in theme. Yet Filippino's
personal. Rocks zigzag
books,
little
devils peer
monks
outward
like
is
highly
roughly piled
gesticulate like actors, little
from crannies, pages
pose and his fingers in vibration
curl;
and the
—
use sensibility
all
saint's
of line to induce unsettled nervousness. Despite
on line, Leonardo's ideas appear
shadow and, more basically, in the
Filippino's reliance
in
the strong
insistence
on living
processes.
Rome, the Triumph of
(begun 1488;
view beyond
fig.
major fresco in
Thomas
180), gives us a
among
the scholars
made
is
thrown and torn books, forming
in the
.-iquiuas
Ghirlandaio city
symmetrical room, but in front the
a
debating
shrill
.A
Sanil
intellectual tension. In his
a
visual
still life
of
most imjxjrtant fresco
cycle in Florence (finished 1502)'' the scene o{ Sainl
179.
Filippino Lippi.
The i'Jnon of St. Rprnord. Panel,
Flnrenrr
Badi.n.
I'hilij)
fi'io"
Dr.shnyitig
11
Dragon
up
sets
a symmetrical
wall strung with lamps like a nervous Christmas
tree,
and similar
Rrsurm lion
of
fussy
decoration
T)iiisinn(i.
in
a
bestrews the
design
quoting
149
Giotto. For a patron
who admired
Savonarola he
painted a hollow-cheeked Christ in a Cnuifixiou
on
a gold
background,^ a medievalism that seems
doom and
suitable since Savonarola's preaching of
forms
Filippino's
combine
both
anxiety
and
Piero di Cosimo (1462-1521) worked chiefly
houses where a non-Savonarolan
for rich private
paganism was cultivated.
He
painted some beautiful
unoriginal altarpieces, with deeply glowing color
surfaces
tion for
and occasional anecdotal tokens of admiraFlanders, but his fascinating work is secular.
unique themes have
Its
their kinship,
remote, with second-rate engiavings that
made
to illustrate
and that
had been
books of history and mythology;
he makes them as sophisticated as Botticelli and
humorous
tive
the
mcx)d, a
as
never before.
men hunting seems
A
showing primi-
series
to reflect the
amused
curios-
ity
of a patron about a learned theory of the origins
of
human
civilization,
quite
un-Christian.
The
comedy of
is
part of another
the weaknesses of
Greek gods. Piero enters into
by
this spirit
painting figures that are properly modeled but
always a bit eccentric in their gestures and
Somewhat more
archaism.
if
Discovei-y of Honey (colorplate 25)
set similar in
nardesque
Botticellian in evocation,
in lighting,
tragic love story
from
faces.
and Leo-
the Death of Procris,^ a
is
classical poetry,
where people
of a species slightly different from the
human
ap-
pear as statuesque victims, in a rich landscape.
head of Cleopatra
is
profile before a live sky.
were done
Sangallo.*
His only actual portraits
for a friend, the architect
his
,^11
A
odd
a fancy portrait,^ a real but
work over
Giuliano da
forty years
is
undated
(consistent with his minor-league practice), adding
to the puzzles.
He
has irrelevantly been admired
recently as a pre-Surrealist because of the surprising
among real things in his work, but his
manner was conservative in his time and
connections
painting
uninteresting to young
artists, so
he was forgotten.
Painting in Milan after Leonardo
3.
Foppa, the
finest
painter in Milan
ations just preceding,
gray atmospheric
art,
the gener-
Leonardo
portraits, notably his late Chancellor
18:), impressively staring,
166).
in front of
personality.
could only copy him.
A
few soon
(see
made
by treating these copies explicitly
as
fig.
their
Of
mark
decorative
what space can do emerges
fulness about
ones were so carried away that they
for local painters to receive
Many young
among
must have seemed, with his
to have prepared the ground
him on
the later group
(fig.
with his hands projected
a table
emerges from provincial
also in
iMorone
and concentrating
Sodoma (1477-1549)
X'ercelli, fifty
his
first
miles west of
objects; later others gained strength by retreating
Milan; like Leonardo, he traveled south in 1500.
partway into tradition. There
He
is
a laboratory of
saw the current work of Perugino and Pinturic-
tension here between a settled conservative tradition
chio in
Rome
modern import.
Of the first group, Boltraffio (1464-1516)
painted smiling Madonnas turning their heads in
leading
artist in Siena.
and
a
the darkness, but his enamel-like firmness of texture
and brightness of hue seem to contradict Leonardo's
meaning. Andrea Solario (docs. i495-d.i524) also
produced Madonnas, of which one has become an
anthology piece, the Virgin with the Green Cushion.^
Leaning over the Child's body, she
is all
curv-
down to become the
There he continues to out-
before settling
Leonardo the Leonardo style of about 1504, twining
and gauzy. \ once-famous Saint Seliastian (1525)""
lifts his slashed body in almost smoky ethereality,
gazing at Heaven; to late X'ictorians he seemed inspired, to
ing of
more recent observers, sugary. The swoon-
.S'rt;?i(
Catherine of Siena (begun 1526), •' a
limp gray S-curve, seems
to foretell Bernini's
permanent aspect of human
ing smiling intimacy, with pretty decorator's colors,
some
within the Leonardesque context. Solario 's thought-
concern. Current taste finds
150
,SVi/h/
Theresa and the Counter Reformation, which in
respects tap a
Sodoma most acceptable
when, bark in Rome, lie paints
riage of Alexander and Roxaiia
Sienese banker Agostino Chigi
a ftesco of the
for the
(fig.
1
Mar-
house of the
82).
The bride,
featherily melting, realizes a type seen in Leonardo's
drawings, and the bridegrooiri
in profile,
is
a neoclassic .Apollo
surrounded by columns.
Bernardino Luini (docs.
I5i2-d.i532)
may
have learned from .Sodoma. He emerges in a I.eonardesque vein when already mature, and his
smiling Madonnas refer back to the earth tones and
modeling of the fresco medium. He
firm
is
most
interesting in secular villa decorations, with narratives
from the Old Testament, mythology, and,
surprisingly, daily
as if
unable
to
life,
where people stand about
move, inflexible poles
graded textures. Luini's
style
is
for all their
dehydrated Leo-
nardo, using the comfortable local tradition of
Foppa, and had in
for Victorians of the
archaism the special virtue
its
cushioned primitive, pure but
181.
easy, like Fra .Angelico
and
more archaic
others.
His
art
is
less
Andrea SoLARio.
Portrait of Chancellor
Gaudenzio FeiTari (docs.
i5o8-d.i546), who spent most of his life in Vercelli.
Still
is
Panel. 29"
x
Collection
Duke
Morone.
24".
Gallarati Scotti, Milan
of the provinces than of folklore; he
182.
Sodoma.
The Marriage of Aiexann
and Roxana.
Fresco, I2'i"x 21 '9".
Villa Famesina,
Rome
worked n country sanctuaiies where painted wooden
parallel, but
statues of the Christian story stood before backdrops
north, like Nicolas Nfanuel neuts^'
199.
Leonardo da
Chalk, 6 1/2"
V'inci. Deluge.
-iS i,'4".
Royal Library, Windsor Castle.
Copyright reserved
Young Michelangelo
6.
Michelangelo's (1475-1564) family had some social
pretensions, so until he was thirteen he stayed in
Then he
being apprenticed.
school rather than
entered theshopof the favorite painter of Florentine
society, Ghirlandaio, but did not like
later
him
memon
much,
it
if his
trustworthy. Perhaps reaction drew
is
though not to the style then pracwhich was similar to Ghirlandaio's. His
natural refuge was in a greater past, in this case
Donatello and ancient Roman sculpture, both to
be seen in the Medici collection. The two were comto sculpture,
ticed,
bined in the work of Bertoldo
assistant to Donatello
once an
(docs. 1461-1491),
and now the keeper
of the Medici antiquities, probably as a restorer.
The boy was allowed with others to study
and was even, he
the objects
said later, a regular guest at the
Medici table. This seems possible in the light of
first
sculpture, at about age sixteen, a battle of
and centaurs
in high relief.'^ It
and
imitates
Roman
and
this
theme,
sarcophagi in marble as Ber-
toldo does in bronze. But
simplified
was stimulated by a
poem on
court poet's reading of a Latin
his
men
is
it
uncourtly
art,
with
dense forms, suggesting the
very
collision of intertwining volumes.
A
break in Michelangelo's
life
resulted from
and the fall of
the family from power, when Savonarola became
Lorenzo
de' Medici's death in 1492
the city leader.
opposed
all
A
puritan evangelist, Savonarola
but devotional
and
him is
art,
that Michelangelo supported
the evidence
shaky. After
Bologna and returning home briefly,
.Michelangelo took a Cupiit^'^ to Rome and there
working
in
carved his
first
large work, Bacchus
were anti-Savonarolan
in
(fig.
The
theme.
200); both
Bacclius
is
technically bold, perhaps suggested by Rossellino's
Saint SebcLslian (see
in volume, teeters
fig.
1
16).
The
god, again dense
and turns drunkenly, with an
action suitable to the statue's original placement
in the
at
middle of an outdoor space.
once by
his big
I'ielii (fig.
201), a
It
was followed
theme not then
standard in Italian sculpture though familiar in
painting
(it is
unfortunate that fame has given this
example the popular
title
of "I'lie"
I'ieta).
.Among
200.
Michelangelo.
Bacchus.
Marble, height 6'8'.
Museo
-Nazionale, Bargello, Florence
earlier ones, the painting by Ercole de' Roberti in
159
201.
Michelangelo,
Marble, height 5'8".
ftf/a.
1498
Vatican.
St. Peter's,
Rome
202.
MtCHELANGELO.
Marble, height I3'5".
Accadcmia. Florence
Bologna
(see
fig.
was probably familiar
137)
The image
Michelangelo.
to
of Mary with the dead
emerged as an abbreviamourned. The power of
polished marble comes from its
is restrained in expression and
Christ on her knees had
first
tion of the scene of Christ
this over-lifesize
volume, since
it
gesture; the Christ's face derives from V'errocchio
141). The group absorbs its contrasts of
and horizontal, clothed and naked, living
and dead, into one moundlike mass. .\t twenty-four
Michelangelo was clearly the most talented sculptor
(see
fig.
vertical
around, but he had not modified tradition.
He found
Savonarola gone when he returned
to Florence in 1501,
and
a republic
now anxious
re-create the age before the Medici takeover of
including the big public works of
owned
art.
The
bodies expropriated some
other public
statues
to
1
434,
city
and
Medici-
and commissioned new works like
group and Michelangelo's David
Rustici's bronze
(1501-4). This colossal figure
the city hall,
weighty
is
in the
style as the Picta.
finished Michelangelo
160
(fig.
202), set
up before
same bland, quiet, balanced
But by
had changed
tlie
time
it
was
his ideas. Side
Ddvid. I5OI-4.
203-
Michelangelo.
Bailie ofCascina (copy).
Designed 1504.
Grisaille on panel, 30" x 52".
Earl of Leicester.
Holkham
Hall
(courtesy Courtauld Institute of
,\i
London)
by side with Leonardo he
liegaii
(1504) his
own
big
three neat rows. Naturally influenced by Leonardo,
young
Florence were, .Michelangelo
scene for the city hall assembly room, likewise
as all
and geared to his specialty (fig. 203). This
Bailie of Cascina showed soldiers, who had been
swimming, answering an alarm, athletic nudes in
complex positiotis. It is a solider revision of Pol-
concentrates on force in process, and yet this
patriotic
laiuolo's
7.
engraving
(see fig.
109),
with figures in
is
no
dense in weight than the earlier works. From
now on
a
seeming contradiction, great
solidity fused
with fervor of action, creates the special [X)wer of
Michelangelo's works.
Young Raphael
Raphael (1483-1520) is perhaps the least liked today
artists generally admitted to be great. He seems
of
to
less
artists in
approve and praise the world too readily and
create too easily.
He was
indeed a "quick study" of
every style he saw, and could without strain rework
any into
his
constantly
ones, often
own unmistakable
abandoned the elegant
more problematic.
syntliesis.
But he
results to
ny new
he had also seen Signorelli, the strongest painter of
the area. At
first
he
when
most accomplished
(fig.
204),
in small
where
shift-
ing curved line bonds the soft skin to the deep soft
air.
Ill
1504 he
moved
to bigger
competition in
Florence, where he painted small .Madonnas and
portraits while continuing to get aliarpiece
sions from Perugia.
His father, a painter in Urbino, died
is
panels like the Three Graces
(fig.
The
fxirtraits
commis-
of .\iigelo Doni
205) and his wife'* reflect Leonardo's Moita
pyramids growing from a base of bent
Raphael was eleven, and he worked under Perugino
Lisa, with
before becoming an independent master at seven-
arms, but exclude the potential of motion and of
teen, a little
digious.
still
younger than average but not pro-
The altarpieces
he painted for Perugia and
smaller places are in the undramatic local tradi-
tion of Perugino
and Piero
della Francesca, with
suave figures in cool space. Yet from the
start his
psychology in favor of pure pictorial
effects,
with
when
most of the traditionally famous "Raphael Madonnas" were painted (fig. 206). They relate the two
emphatic structural areas of
figures dramatically
color.
This
is
through changing patterns of
mother and child
people are warmer and more mobile than Peru-
(urves, such as the forearms of
ginos, their contour lines not just traced but swell
enclosing each other reciprocally. Here the two
ing with gentle breath; this was partly because he
available traditions, the geometric-spatial
was a talented and
critical
pupil and partly because
the small central
Italian
one of
towns and the mobile-
161
Ci
204.
Raphael. The
^n
^.
Three Graces.
Panel, 7" x 7".
Musfe Condi, Chantilly
206.
Raphael. La
Panel, 48" x 31 1/4".
The Louvre,
205.
Raphael.
X 17".
Angela Doni
Panel, 24"
Pitti
Paris
Palace, Florence
Belle Jardiniere.
r^
Raphael. The
207.
figural
School of Alhtm. 1509-1
one of recent Florentine
pletely blended, so that
their
common
makes a big
Money.
1.
Fresco, base line 25'3". Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican,
painters, are
com-
Raphael almost restores
source in Masaccio; hence
when he
will resemble the
Tribute
fresco
it
very graphically thrusts out a hand in the
classic gesture
to a scTibe
Rome and
suddenly was
challenged by a large commission from Pope Julius
roomful of
della Segnatura
frescoes. In the resulting Stanza
(1509-11) he responds with his
usual apparent ease. Since the
room
is
vaulted, each
of a blind man. and
who
head up
twists his
is
also dictating
to hear. It
is
a
which also stays within
vividly recognizable anecdote
a formal
In 1508 he went to
II for a
Homer
Rome
choreographic system of curves.
The
Poetry
window; there Raphael set the poets on
Mount Parnassus, which rises around the window
as if it were not awkward, and indeed we never
wall has a
notice
is.
how
peculiar the shape of the painted surface
For Philosophy Raphael designed
a
grand space
and the rather unvisual
themes assigned were Theology, Poetry, and Philos-
reflecting Bramante's intentions for Saint Peter's.
ophy, along with smaller images (colorplate
reverberate into the distance; to this the imp>osing
wall
fig.
is
a big half-circle,
207).
26,
Raphael presents the ideas through groups
of theologians, poets, and philosophers in conversa-
Huge
vaults
and
piers,
.Vlasaccio-like figures
With
alternating with spaces,
respond
in a dignified parade.
Like Leonardo designing the Last Su(>per, he
work, the School of Athens. Raphael
established his permanent authority as the master
evades lining them up as for a group photograph
of the High Renaissance figure, softly tonal and
and invents
sculpturally
tion.
softly
changing rhythmic patterns of
up to a general symmetry. Listeners
heads keenly, smile and point; chains of
up animation and repose; a muse's con-
action which add
turn their
curves set
tinuous quarter turn
is
measured by the
folds in
her robe and finished off in her head and
feet.
this
majestic
firm,
and
restrained, spon-
taneously alive and produced by formulas of grace.
Having done
so,
he
at
once abandoned
it
to
explore
wholeheartedly what he had alreadv taken into
account, the
rivals,
more
difficult
imagery of
his strongest
Michelangelo and the Venetian painters.
163
Andrea Sansovino; Fra Bartolommeo
8.
of big outdoor sculpture like Rustici's group over
another door on the same building
The
easy full-fleshed
related
and
alive,
esque," yet the
both
artists
work
(see fig. 56).
movements, gracefully
is
earlier than Raphael.
more monumental, imposing
in a
less
way
linear
that
times academic. Sansovino was learning from
and Leonardo, and
works of
also
(see
fig.
is
and
some-
Roman
fiom individual bold
his predecessors, like
Sebastian
SainI
Rather
were moving toward the High Renais-
sance orchestration of the figure,
art
inter-
are readily labeled "Raphael-
Antonio Rossellino's
116).
Rossellino also
is
behind Sansovino's most startling experiments with
the spatial depth of marble reliefs, undercutting
and objects in a technically involved and
way whose excitement depends on its virtuosI. ike some of liis contemporaries carving in
figures
clever
it\.
208.
Andrea
(above "Doors
Sa\-i.\ i\"
Paradise
ot
l:,i>iinni
1.
209.
ojchn^t
Panel, 8'5"x y'y".
Bronze, height g's". Baptistery, Florence
The Louvre,
By the time of Michelangelo's generation, second
rank
artists in
Florence were also involved in the
High Renaissance. Andrea Sansovino
d.i5ii9) always
belonged solidly
tradition, but
seemed
end of
its
range.
He
to the little-known
(docs.
1491-
in the local carving
experimental
to enjoy the
was perhaps an apprentice
but
lively
Francesco Ferrucci
(1437-1493), an associate of V'errocchio. His
marble
altar
in
first
Florence"* and his later tombs
of two cardinals in
Rome
(1506-9)'^ use the same
thin running ornament as Miiio da Fiesole, but
some of the figures are surprising in their openmouthed athletic pressure. His first monumental
work, a Madotuia for Genoa Cathedral (1504), lets
grandeur grow in a controlled breadth of curvilinear
power which, as in the young Michelangelo, is an
appeal to ancient
Roman
in his masterpiece, the
the
liafiti.'.m
(begun 1502;
Florence Baptistery that
164
art.
two
is
This reaches
its
peak
over-lifesize figures of
fig.
208), a
part of the
Fra Bartolommeo.
Marriage of St. Catherine. 1511.
Begun 1302.
group
for the
new campaign
Paris
iionh
he
Ital\,
whose vehirle,
esseiiiially
is
an expert
(
raftsman
Leonardo, happens
followitio
to
surface
he
High Renaissance.
Far Bartolommeo (i 172-1517) also gives the
impression tliat Leonardo and Raphael had affected
the
him, before
was possible. In an early
it
mcnl (1499-1501).'**
warming up of
a
gino-like anangciiient does indeed
fit
209).
a neat Periiin with the
figures,
including an application to a more tradition
layout of Leonardo's shadowy figure modeling in
the early Adoruliou.
can order
When
ic
he joined the Domini
as
air
is
(fig.
plans, the emotional detach-
saints each related only to the viewer, the
with a brush stroke like Leonardo's or
Raphael's but without those
evocation of
in 1.514,
such a master of the
and
artists' related
human meaning,
Renaissance academic
1500, he stopped painting for three
in
but then emerged
years,
between figure and
fixity of position, seem oddly like a throwback to
"diagiammatic" Dominican imagery of the fourteenth century (see fig. 45). The construction of the
1.490S,
al
that the tie
Lhe semicircular
ment of
Jtidg
1m.sI
means
not a cutting contour but an absorbent unity
dramat-
High
gives us a
style. .After a visit to
Rome
when he saw the newest works by Raphael
Bartolommeo takes this tendency
painting huger but still more vacant people.
others, Fra
traditional formal altarpiece that he succeeded
without question to the leadership of Florentine
painting in 1508, when Leonardo and Raphael
tion
had gone away and again
creasing limitation to pure profile and full face, and
The
a
further,
.Academicism also seems hinted
"second team" remained.
figures in his large paintings are still related
world
to their
Perugino way, fixed in
in the
reminded of Perugino because these
swathed
in
toga like robes,
9.
Andrea
.Andrea
(i4^itj
Florence
who
15:^0)
figures,
human
coveries of
its
is
the
first artist
of talent in
High Renaissance alreadv
would convey
figure that
reality.
in
home
of the academic, seven-
teenth-century Bologna.
del Sarto
finds the
admired Raphael
mention the
later in the classic
of the
the paintings, which thus never
so contradict the idea of
an institution. His predecessors, including Raphael,
had worked to construct a set of forms for representing the
by the disconnec-
direct original naturalism of his
landscape drawings. These drawings had to be
dehvdrated for use in the paintings, just as happened
have such dignified
The shadowing
breadth and easy stances.
at
his finished paintings, with their in-
sparkling drawings of figure groups, not
his loose,
to
sil-
houette against an abstract sky. but we are not
visually
between
.Andrea,
like
later centuries,
their dis-
artists
who
simply used
become
chill,
and
academicism, unlike Fra
Bartolommeo 's.
Since Andrea was so obviously an admirable
it seems fitting thai his early works are
old fashioned. .Small, vivacious, but rather puppet
e
raftsman,
like figuies are frescoed in a big space, usually
sym-
that set of forms, so that he evolves not in a steady
metrical;
linear increase of control of reality but in a
lievond Filippino and Pieio di Cosimo who used
such frameworks for more complex purposes. But
iiis
early masterpiece, the Rirlh nj Ihr I'ir^in
among
meandei
a\ailable forms according 10 his taste. This
changed situation
him "the
is
connected with the tag calling
faultless painter,"
which means
the best one can say of him: he
plished but not original.
It
is
is
also
that
it
is
highly accom
connected with
it
seems
(I")'!)'" recalls
theme
to record
suave smiling
a step as far
(ihirlandaio only
faces, the easy
the brilliance of his drawings, mostly of the figure
fuz/y contours, are all
ol life.
and loose contours are retained
in
as
Gbirlandaio,
in
using the
contemporary bomgeois
or (unlike Leonardo) sketches for paintings. But
their freshness
back
life;
the
ihvthmii turns, the
homages
to
Leonardo's glow
.Andrea typically adds a factor linked to the
craft of fresco, the warmth of earth colors. Mineral
Kxi
Andrea del Sarto. Madonna
2 10.
of the Sack. 1525. Fresco. 5'9"x
1
1'2".
Courtyard, SS. Annunziata, Florence
and greens are to remain typical, and
shadow marks his independ-
reds, yellows,
their slight suffusion in
ent,
double relation
to
modern and
The famous Madonna
so
nicknamed fiom
distinguish
more
tones,
it
a
minor
of the Harpies (1517;-
ornament,
on Leonardo in
and on Fra Bartolommeo
as a holy piece for the altar.
suppressed gray
its
in
its
rigid formality
But perhaps such
was what Andrea needed as a coiiinerpoise
softness,
strict
is
the
and
to
from other Madonnas)^" depends
closely
in his
mature work he
balances between soft parts.
Madonna of he
I
to
likes to
A classic
Sack (1525;
fig.
adjusted in distance and color and thus equalized,
both with vague cushiony edges.
old.
detail of
white sack that Joseph leans on; the two siiapes are
To
be able to com-
pose refined balances of fuzzy materials was a necessary art in the
new Florentine
easy one. In the JmsI
,S'i(/;/;(?r
situation, but not an
(1527)^' colorful figures
with shimmering color planes are
blank space, while in Andrea's
set into a
latest
huge
works large
arranged without any environment.
The
rigidity
figures are
modern
ordering of formal elements into a vivid and seduc-
arrange
instance
210),
where
tive
scheme
much
as in
is
the test of a successful work, very
some "formal painting of the twentieth
"
centurs.
the Virgin, sitting on the ground, balances the big
The
10.
Sistine Ceiling
Michelangelo interrupted work on his battle painting and on a set of
to
go to
From
Rome
this
twehe
to plan the
large statues in Florence
tomb of Pope
Julius
II.
time on he always worked on very large
tomb involving
projects, like
this
These excited
his large-scale
forty
statues.
imagination but could
never reach completion because he was always
tempted
series of
166
to accept
new
ones.
.So his life
grand beginnings. Julius
II
became
a
was a similarly
who was also arranging with Bramante
redo Saint Peters, and soon after with Raphael
for his room of frescoes (see p. 163). The tomb was
largeplaniier,
to
set aside
when, perhaps, the pope grew more interand Michelangelo with some
ested in the building,
awkwardness was put instead
of the Sistine Chapel
a
(1
blow because he had
to painting the ceiling
-,08-1 2; figs. 2iia,b). It
less interest in
was
painting and
because ceilings in chapels are usually minor, and
'f
i.
2iia,
b.
Michelangelo.
General view of chapel and
diagram of ceiling.
Sistine Chapel, Vatican,
Rome.
Ceiling fresco, 1508-12,
length 131', width 44'
rationally
figures,
limited in
their decoration
single
to
while the walls show narrative scenes
this case
by Perugino and others).
most important chapel
Still, it
(in
was the
metrical beauty, and the Drlugr, despite
and our tendency
esqiie violence,
is
to associate
a series of
it
its
theme
with Michelangel-
detached well-rounded
and Michelangelo consoled himself by managing to change
figure groups.
the project to nanative scenes, an essentially poor
[.zekiel (fig. 212) is a mass pushed bv a windstorm
and responding with sideways intensity; hisstrength
in the Vatican,
idea which he carried out with such assurance thai
it
was imitated
ness
is
for centuries; for
a device in expressing
him the awkward-
power. There are nine
this suggests
."Ml
Michelangelo's cau-
tion in a strange context, but he soon hit his stride.
is
great, but the difficulty he faces
Thus we
is
greater
scenes taken from Genesis (because the wall below
the failure of the great, which
already told the stories of Moses and of Christ; see
theme (unlike the successof the great and the
colorplate 21): three of
three of .A.dam
God
creating the world,
and Eve, and three of Noah. There
are also, aroinid theedges,refle( ting the
seven prophets and
five sibyls
first
project,
(female prophets of
pagan traditions; recently paint-
Christ's
coming,
in
ed on
Roman
(cilings
bv
P'ilippino
IJppi
Michelangelo
first
painted the
and
sibyls.
revert, in their stable masses, to the
years before he
life
last
scenes
These
I'lelii
first
and
is
a
the only truly tragic
failure
of the small). In the nearby Creation of Eve the
hulking people are cramped and bowed, and in the
masterly double scene of
and expelled
(fig.
Adam and Eve tempted
213) the big-boned but
cowed
people, with rippling shivering contour and neurotic
and
Jacopo della Quercia (see fig. 65). The Cumaean
Sibyl, in the paradox of her immense muscles,
parts
to the
had learned about the mobility of
from Leonardo. The Delphic Sibyl
is
and
others).
the adjacent prophets
still.
ate given tragedy in the .Aristotelian sense,
sym-
fear of
immense
age,
being touched, quote the admired
and painful seeking
in
her book,
symbolizes this dichotomy of phvsical resources
tremendous
yet inadequate.
.After a short
break, Michelangelo. on resuming.
167
212.
Michelangelo.
Ezekiel.
1508-12. Fresco,
rectangle containing figure ii'8" y la'j".
Ceiling, Sistine Chapel. Vatican.
213.
Rome
Michelangelo.
The Temptation and Expulsion of
Adam and Eve, 508- 2
1
1
Fresco. 9'2" / iB'B".
Ceiling, Sistine Chapel,
X'atican.
•^..T./T**!
^^4
'A-^'^
('
r
Rome
illl
COLORPLATE
25.
PiERO
Di
CosiMO. The Discovm of Horuy.
c.
1490. Panel. 31
"
51
".
An Museum.
Worccsie
KAPHAhl
.
/^rirHunui.
I50q
1
I.
Fresco, base line 22'. Siaiiza della Sesiuiluia, V.uil.U], Kl
jf'i
SislinrCh.n.rl. \..li.aii.
Rn
iiihih.
I
',n;;
ij
I
rcsco, rectangle containing figure
la'g^x la's".
Ceiling;.
l;olorplate 28.
Raphael.
Si.
Pehr Freed from
Prisim.
1512-14. Fresco, base line 2i'&" Stanza d'EIiodoio. Vatican.
.
Rome
went back
is
calm of the
to the classic
but
parts,
first
ii
modified by the richer expressiveness attained in
the meantime. This gives us the famous scene of
God
creating
Adam
(see
fig.
i),
the limp athlete in
repose, physically perfected but awaiting the
life
that
God on
The
second half of the ceiling goes through the
grand barge of angels
his
same evolution
as the
first,
will bring.
from the stable
to the
ner\e-racked. but like the second stable beginning.
the second agitation
than the
more
is
and inward
subtle
Jeremiah's immense body droops
first.
with grief (colorplate 27). evoking the same monu-
mental and tragic contrast between great powers
and
The
but in
as in Fzekirl,
their insufficiency
physical terms.
very
last figures
less
are the most
twisted and complex, including the elegant, difficult
Libyan Sihyl and
ness, a torso
(iofi
pushing
Separating Light from Dark-
at the
corners of
its
frame. In
huge collection of people, moreeasilv completed
than statues, Michelangelo was evidently modifying
this
himself very
fast
and
excitedly.
This happens
works having manv parts more often than
in
in
a
similar quantity or time-span of separate works,
because a new idea that came to him too late can be
applied immediately to the next related unit.
it
was finished .Michelangelo had reached
statement of superhuman strength and
once applied
tomb with
it
to sculpture,
Miise<< (fig. 2
1
4).
When
his full
loss.
He
at
returning to the pope's
simply one more prophet
as to type, but, as stone requires, less involuted.
For the tomb he also carved two attendant
who
Slaves,''-'^
214.
express struggle but in a late stage, close to
High
Renaissance sweep of motion had conquered un-
defeat, a slackening of a
once
Michelangelo. Mous.
Varblc. height
fierce effort.
7'8".
S. Pieiro in V'incoli,
Rome
expected areas.
1.
Raphael's Last Years
.After the
triumph of the Segnatura, Raphael repeat-
1
large fresco sets with apparent ease, mainly for the
Bramaiue died, and the new office of curator of the
Rome. Perhap he would have left
painting eniircK for arihiiectme if he had lived
popes. Within a few years he headed a large enter-
longer.
ed himself as to his outward conditions, producing
prise
his
and became
hands
at all;
a
superintendent
who
ol
Saint
But ihequalitiesof the paintings do not repeat.
hardly used
the projects giew larger and larger,
induding the supervision
antiquities of
Peter's aftei
The
second room of the \'atican. the Stan/a d'Elio-
doro (1511-ij). concerns ihemes of ihe Church
173
UL,L-'-^^
Raphael. The
overcoming
its
el's
Boigo. 1514
(like Ghirlandaio's frescoes)
passive,
base line
The
who
sorts of lives are
being
led.
a vision of the wafer of the
The
odd
focus from the back of the painting toward
now
are on a
In the Expulsion of Heliodorns a tiny praying figure
more particularized and
it
Rome
us recurs from
usual easiness of solution w-e take in the dis-
it is
Stanza dell'Inccndio. \'atican.
22'.
modern
from the protagonist; but with Rapha-
tinction without stopping to find
that
17. Fresco,
of onlookers in
It is full
different plane of existence,
more
ihi
enemies, showing action rather than
groups of portraits.
costume
Fire in
that two
Miracle of Bnl.seun,
Mass bleeding, proving
Christ's body, transmits the sensuous action
at the far
on, for violent expansiveness.
end of the funnel
triggers the action,
and
results are at the front, in big flung wrestling
its
figures.
The
tiny far cause
and
large near effect, with
the rushing funnel between, are varied in the next
set
of frescoes, in the Stanza dell" Incendio (1514-'")!
in the Fire ni the
Borgo
center the tiny pope at a
(fig.
215), in the distant
window
prays
and stops
that has panicked the foreground crowd.
through fresh color, showing that Raphael had been
the
looking at some Venetians at work, and diverging
The drama
from our standard views of Raphael
Freed from Prison (colorplate 28) a violent light
new paradoxical version of the interaction
of drama and geometry evoked by the Florentine
tradition. The rest of the frescoes in this room are
shines at us from behind the bars, silhouetting them,
by
as well as
from
the Florentine tradition of form. In Sainl Peter
and having
a variant in the sensuous moonlit
fire
is
stretched
on extremes of space and
scale, a
assistants.
The heavier curving rhvthms appear in famous
Madonna of the C.liair,--^
armor
oftheguardsat thesides. This luminous and textural
later .Madonnas, such as the
painting absorbs the figures of Peter and the angel
with
in the cell; these are
figure
made of rhythmic
grapiiic
and gracetul
pler than before.
174
new
versions of the Rapiiael
permanent
but hea\ ler and am-
curves,
lovnuila,
his
in
its
total interlocking
of curves packed together
embrace, and in the fresco of Galatea
a solid well-fleshed
(fig.
216),
rendering of a Leonardo twining
motion. This fresco was painted for the papal banker
.\gostino Chigi, Raphael's most important patron
after the
popes
(see p.
177;. Later,
on Raphael's
design, his assistants painted the ceiling of an
open
porch in Chigi's house, suggesting anarbor overhead
and the sky seen through
it,
as in VJantegna, except
that the openings are also frames for mythological
scenesof\'enus, Cupid, and Psyche (finished 1519;.
It is a new style for the classical love stories that had
pleased Botticelli's patrons.
In the late years the
one
set
of big paintings
by Raphael's hand ('because they were
working sketches) are the cartoons
made
as
for tapestries to
be hung in the Sistine Chapel (1515-16). The first,
Peter's Miraculous Catch of Fishes, is an open-
.Sai>J/
air lightscape like Saint Peter
Freed from Prison;
others are as restrained in their vertical classicism
as the
contemporary Sistine
Madonna,''--*
216.
who
Raphael.
only
Galatea. 1513.
Fresco, g'S "^ I'i"Villa Famcsina,
217.
Raphael.
St.
Victoria and .\lbert
Paul Preaching
in Athens.
Museum. London
Rome
1515-16. Watcrcolor on pape
.4-6-
2i8.
Raphael lower portion
Romano
I
completed by Giulio
i.
The Transfiguration. 151
Panel. 13'4"
^
Pinaroiera Vaticana.
sways slightly because she
as all figures are
is
indeed a
live creature,
perceived to be after Leonardo had
worked. Those were the two poles of Raphael
when he began
changed
to a
this series,
but
as
to reject
he proceeded
it
balance and resolution. In
Sainl Paul Preachhig in Alhrns
right sides of the
crowd and
square and round,
far
and
its
(fig. 2
1
7) the left
and
space are competinglv
near, tight
and
loose. .Such
exploration of open-ended uiulassii rhythm
is full-
in Raphael's strange last painting, the 'ruins-
figuraliou (1517-20;
176
mood
view of crowd action that moves beyond
simple energy,
est
s
fig.
21S). Like the tire in
llic
Borgo
it
7.
9'2"
Rome
balances a figine of spiritual power, high,
small, far off.
and weightless, with some very material
people, heavy, low, and nearby. But the two parts
now wholly separate, and we can only connect
in our own minds as reciprocals and as events
adjacent In time. Thus Rapliael does not keep to
are
them
worn haimonioiis giooves,
who ha\c
like
iiis
later imitators
hurl his reputation. His experiments in'
form and dramatic vehicles were probably more
MiiniiJ.Tiing to
most younger
aiiists
than theabsolut-
isms ot ihc altern.itixe gieal souKes, Leonardo and
Mi( helaiigelo.
Architecture in
12.
Pope
L'lidei
(r.
|uliui
II
Rome had
1513-21),
particularly. But
and Braniante
it
a
Rome
and Ins muccssoi Leo X
boom, in letiilai building
began naturally with the
liimself.
The
X'atit
an
palace had been a casual
conglomeration of towers and apartments, unaf
fected by Alberti's hopes of order.
first
The most obvious
step was Bramante's high screen
on the
city side
(from 1504), consisting of a three -story porch, or
loggia, each a long arcade. (It
was
turned into
later
one side of a courtyard, the Cortile di .San Damaso.)
It reflects Albertian emphasis on using the thickness
of walls visually and practically, and, indeed, began
with a plan to remodel the small twostorv loggia
had designed
that Alberti
until then the most
in front of .Saint Peter's,
modern design
in the area.
But
buildings to a small villa on a nearby
hill
DoNATO Bramaste. Palazzo
220.
Caprini,
Rome
(desiroyed; engraving by Lafrery, 1549).
Brainante's grandest scheme was to tie the Vatican
by con-
structing two parallel conidors
and arcades, three
stories high at the palace end and one story at the
villa end, making the whole into one huge building
and giving the X'atican the scale it has today (fig.
2ig).
The area between the two conidors, the
as
one looks npw.iid liom the palace end there are
(WO big
ni( lies in plain walls,
Bramante's trademark,
Belvedere courtyard, was to be arranged with three
to
stepped tenaces for gardens and an outdoor theater;
Braniante built a two-story house for himself on an
mark the intermediate and end
original design (later
owned by Raphael;
the lower story, of rough
sliops; the
upper
is
walls (from 1505).
fig.
220):
tement blocks, contains
the dwelling, with a livelv in-
andout rhythm of recessed windows between
light-
weight half columns. The whole fagade alludes to
ttie
force of gravity
piiiposes
beiame
and
to the contrasting social
and so neatlv
a standard imitated everywhere,
\l\"s Louvre
offices.
and
status involved,
to
The more
bciame tagged
that
it
ftom Louis
nineteenth-century goveriinient
ornate and formal upper floor
in Italian as the "noble storv."
Bramante's only rival was Baldas.sare Peruzzi
(I (.Si-i 5i{6),
DoNATO Bramantf..
Vatican,
Rome (Drawn
Pen and
ink.
Florence)
Belvedere Courtyard,
by an observer, c.1560.
Gabinctio dei Discgni,
Uffizi,
who
built the
banker
.Agos"
house (i5ot)-i
alter a later
owner). Set in a garden
1;
called the "Farnesina
at
the edge of
open porch on one side replaces the inner
court usual in town mansions (fig. 221). Beside the
town,
219.
a painter
liiio C'.higi's
its
porch
two side wings project forward, perhaps
reflecting a tradition of castle towers, but the elegant
surface
is
very urbane, leaving a square area for
177
22 1.
Baldassare Peruzzi.
Garden fa9ade,
Villa Farnesina, Rome.
'509-"- 58'^ 121'
223.
A.NTONIO da Sa.NGALLO THE YoUNGER.
Mint (presently Banco
Rome. It23-24. S"' S'^'
Faijadc,
Raphael. Chigi Chapel,
Maria del Popolo, Rome. 1515.
222.
S.
Height 48'9", 21
178
'4"
square
di S. Spirito),
I'reachitig in Athens.
painted or built, uses
His architecture altogether,
sharp geometry to explore
a
intellectual possibilities; twenty-five years later he
designed one other great building
(see
fig.
Raphael learned architecture from
Bramante, and before succeeding him
Peter's
had designed
which, in
its
268).
his friend
remodeled
Saint
at
.Sant'Eligio degli Orefici
(
1
509)
Bramante
state, follows
in
having an interior of expanding curved space, but
differs in
its
clean, thin w-alls as unarticulated as
the inside of an egg.
That Raphael thought of
these as painters' walls
Antonio da Sangallo
THE Younger.
is
suggested by his next
224-
interior, the very original burial chapel for .\gostino
Chigi
Projected plan,
St. Peter's,
Rome.
Vatican,
8i8' x 557'
each window between interwoven thin pilasters and
cornices.
The
wall handling
in
is
little
altered from
Rome, derived from
the
seem
222), a square with sliced-off corners
dome,
for
which he designed mosaics
windows to the sky like Melozzo da
Forli's (see p. 125). Most typical is the unfinished
Villa Madama, a series of three communicating
that
one already standard
(fig.
rising to a
to be
semicircular rooms, quoting ancient
and
perfect for holding receptions.
devices preferred by Francesco di Giorgio, Periizzi's
curved side walls, marked by taut
teacher, to suggest the third dimension. Inside the
niches that have small niches in
house Peruzzi painted
bracing us; the
representing Chigi's
classical
friezes,
most
horoscope, and,
tlingly, a wall of columns
a ceiling
star-
between naturalistic land-
scapes as they might be seen in the neighborhood of
the house. This illusionistic effect
may
also
have
flat
the whole context
is
side
Roman spaces
On the thin
pilasters, are big
them
opens onto
daintily em-
a garden,
porch where he was painting the ceiling at
Villa
Madama,
and
a suggestive parallel to Chigi's
a lightened variation
this time.
on Bramante
with spatial imagination, workable structuie, and
mood all
been used elsewhere, since very few earlier domestic
social
frescoes have survived. Peruzzi 's
than his work on Saint Peter's, which languished.
one other remark-
able painting, the Presenlalwn of the Virgin in a
church
fresco
expressiveness
cycle,^*
of
adopts
Raphael's
the
architectural
recent
SainI
Paul
in tune,
is
more personally Raphael's
There Bramante's plan for a centralized church was
to the more conventional long one, and at
changed
the ends of the short arms, perhaps for balance, semi-
Antonio da Sangallo the Yolnger, Facade, Palazzo Farnese.
Rome. 1534-46. 95' X 195'
225.
circular colonnades were added, but
none
of this
When
Ijy
attaching an almost separate extra uint to an
equal-armed structure
was carried out.
Raphael died Saint
Peter's
was taken
exterior,
which adds
(fig.
224). than in
forests
of columns
notorious
its
smaller
to the
without allowing for the enlarged
over by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1485-
earlier sets
nephew of the two Sangallos encountered
before, and the only architect of this age who came
Sangallo's masterpiece, Palazzo Farnese (1535-46,
1546),
firom a
stonemason backgiound. Most of
built forts
he
he
and remodeled wings of buildings, and
a vast
left
his life
of sensible structural drawings.
file
The first rare suggestion of his personality is in the
Rome Mint (1523-24; fig. 223). It somewhat inappropriately uses Bramante's "noble story" pattern,
but above the rough base the upper area
not on
is
Bramante's scheme but the more traditional inter-
weave of
style
pilasters
where he
and moldings. Sangallo picks up
finds
it,
but
tlien
is
firm in handling
the vocabulary as well as the slightly concave fagade,
suggested by the
site,
which pulls the forms together.
His entire shapes are more adept than
His model
(1539)
for the
more
is
his phrasing.
resumed work on Saint
effective in
Peter's
proposal to reconcile
its
rebuilding a smaller house;
225),
fig.
works by sim-
ply discarding most of the style vocabulary.
omits
all vertical
scale.
Its
front
accents, leaving only the corner
marking each of
and the heavy window frames. The
horizontal mass with a window rhythm
frames, the horizontal moldings
the three stories,
result, a
that could continue indefinitely,
of his
forts.
The mild
is
almost like one
corner framing
change from an early Renaissance house
Strozzi (see
fig.
165).
Sangallo's tasks, hated
had done
Farnese.
at Saint
He
the
main
like Palazzo
who inherited
down what Sangallo
Michelangelo,
and
tore
Peter's but respected
altered parts
still
to
Palazzo
be built, but in the
existing structure revised only one
the
is
window,
rhythm from an almost regular beat
to shift
to a strongly
accented center.
the equal-arined with the conventional long plan
13.
Giorgione
In 1500 the seventy-year-old
Giovanni Btlluii
still
dominated painting in \'enice. Most young painters
imitated him, and his brother Gentile and Carpaccio
were ineffective
as rivals.
Giorgione (docs.
i5o()-
d.i5U)) worked a revolution while adhering to the
concern
for spatial continuity that
tian fixture,
it
built
and
on color
was now a \'ene-
specifically to Bellini's version ol
sensibility. Yet
even in
his first
mature works. The Tempest (colorplate 21)) anil
the Castelfranco altarpiece (hg. 226), he cannot
follow
Bellini's
easygoing willingness to
traditional big iconic image, the formal
or portrait, occupy the foreground.
let
the
Madonna
To him
this
evidently seemed inconsistent with the optical effect
of the visual
throughout
bai
kgrounds
field,
il;
in
and the assumption of equality
hence
his paintings look like tiie
Bellini's.
lentiuN panning, because
space, in
or
which the figure
building.
Giorgiones
is
as incidental as a tree
results
were probably
triggered by seeing the logical tonal unity called for
by Leonardo (who visited \'enice in
1500). Yet
Leonardo had retained the figure as an element
separate from the space, and only his shadowiness
made
for unity;
Giorgione's eye and palette are
Bellinian. This unity
became the
special character
of sixteenth6'3"><7'9"S
where the center
saint sits on a hill at the top of the
painting and the two below ignore him, though
sharing the gentle haze. To be sure, such isolation
is
also an acceptance of a medieval tradition, in
which images are lined up
in a row,
and some ofthe
may have a landscape fragment as an attribute.
many portraits that Bellini (like Giorgione) was now painting of thoughtfully gazing
saints
In the
aristocrats, the figure
wiched between
clouds.
remains a solid chunk sand-
a front
The same
«tyle
parapet and a pillow of
pervades the
Mirror^^ which he painted
Sude
at eighty-five.
with
In the
a fence
Zaccaria, Venice
of trees and Priapus steals
nymph, soon
to
this ribald tale
be awakened by
a
up
to a sleeping
braying
from 0\iA^* the chunky
ass.
In
little figures
retain their sculptuial identity within the kaleido
scopic dance of color; Giovanni Bellini was simph
using, and mastering, one more method of
picture-
making, without himself changing.
.\lvise \ivarini's one notable pupil,
Jacopo de
Barbari (docs. 1497-151 1), was the first Italianartist
above the artisan level to practice printmaking
in
quantity. This
Germany;
came about through
his links
10
prim, published by a German
Venice, was an astonishing birds-eve
his
fii-st
great Feast ofthe
merchant
for the
view of \'enice, a woodcut on many sheets that took
Gods (1514; colorplate 30) painted
duke of Ferrara, the gods are drinking before
in
183
229. Jacopo de' Barbari. View of Venice. poTUon. 1497-1500.
Woodcut, entire dimensions 50" X 108". Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New
York
three years to produce (1497-1500;
completely novel object,
made
fig.
229).
It is
a
possible by a fusion
of northern minute description and Venetian atmos-
pheric sweep.
He then went
to
Germany, worked
at
the courts of several princes, and, along with small
paintings, engraved
linear style, with
wilted
lilies.
tall
figures in a special sinuous
drooping heads and thin
works of his teacher Vivarini, who
a way, in line
folds like
This was developed from some
with current
taste,
iiad
late
been seeking
toward atmospheric
and psychological subtlety. Barbari had some influence on German artists such as Diirer and Baldung
Grien.
He
also
autonomous
seems to have produced the
still-life
painting in history
(fig.
first
230),
again a blend of northern particularism and the
Venetian feeling for luminous textures.
level of
opening up modern themes
On
the
for painting,
though not otiierwise, he is comparable to Giorgione.
The
strangeness of his
work from an
Italian view-
point has led to the opinion that he worked under
German
influence, biu the
examples are
230.
Jacopo
de' Barbari.
Panel, 20 1/4" x 16 1,2".
Alte Pinakothek,
Munich
Still Lijt.
later.
many
similar
German
Bartolommeo Veneto
1502-1530) was
(dots.
Gentile Bellini's one lively pupil.
remained
a
somewhat di7
He
natuiallv
portrait specialist,
though
Heads of women
rich in evoking personalities.
in
fancy costimies gaze out at us; these too have been
associated with
seem
ing fine
on
Germany, but only the costumes
to justify this.
He is most
young gentlemen,
a large scale, with a
weary melancholy touching
231). Here this minor artdocumented the Giorgionesque personality
their refined luxury
ist
remarkable in record-
in brilliant costumes,
has
(fig.
for us.
231.
Bartolommeo Veneto.
Porlrailofa Man.
Panel, 29" x 20".
Museum
of Fine Arts. Houston
The Edith
A.
and Percy
.S.
Str:
Collection
Giulio Campagnola; Riccio
15.
The great
who established
inasters
the
sance were rapidly followed, for the
High Renaisfirst
time
by widely circulated reproductions
in
favored contexts give us the vouth contemplating
a skull, a
nude
\'enus, an astrologer
(fig.
232), all in
in the
small corners of broad landscapes which often in-
form of prints. Leonardo's Milanese drawings, sculp-
clude a view of Venice. With a retrogression con-
history,
and the
ture,
l.asi
Supper were copied by anonymous
with his role as a popularizer, the handling
sistent
craftsmen, and Raphael's paintings and drawings
of space and form
were published systematically by
substantial figures to second themes in the far land-
his associate
Marc-
who made this his career, and
The growth of professional printinaking
antonio Raimondi,
scape.
by others.
a
(as in
Barbari), of
book publishers, and of the great
fame of the painters are
all
inteiTelated. Giorgione's
graphic echo was a somewhat more independent
master.
The
engravings of
tiie
Paduan Giulio Cam-
pagnola (1482-1515) include copies of Diirer prints,
but
his
Giorgionesque works are probably not
copies, but popularizations of the Giorgione
This
is
presumably related
mood.
to the absence of Gior-
gione drawings. Mclanclioh pastorals and other
But the new
new
technical
factor in the
This evades
the surface,
is
still
art
and
is
Bellinian, relating the
effectively transmitted bv
visual invention (a recurrent
Giorgione
circle), the 'dotted manner."
and lets thin shadows wash over
drawing the landscape into subtle con-
line
tinuity with the figures.
Giorgionism
is
not sculptural, and N'enetian
sculpture continues to be infertile.
figure
is
Pietro.
The
leading
Tullio l.ombardo (docs. 1476-1532), son of
He
carved archaeological figures in Padua,
a suitable place for
them, with
its
learned traditions
185
GiULio Campagnola. The Astrologi
Engraving. 4" X 6". Prints Division.
The New York Public Library
232-
Andrea
233.
Riccio. Anon.
Bronze, height 9".
of writers and of Mantegna. Like
some other
demic
classicists,
he comes to
when
forces
him not
to
life
generalize
sensitive balance of masses to
aca-
a portrait
but to apply
something
his
specific
(Guidarelli tomb, Ravenna^'').
But
in
The Louvre.
Paris
—and the exploiting of an unusual technical
Riccio
is tiie first
artist to
vehicle.
a career of the small
bronze, preceded by the partial explorations by
I'ollaiuoloaiid bv
Bertoldoand Bellano. Donatello's
pupils in Florence
Andrea Riccio (1470-1532) Padua pro-
make
and Padua.
A
parallel to, not an imitation of,
more
interesting
Giorgione
is
the
duced one sculptor who has fascinating parallels
with Giorgione He began as a goldsmith, but then
overtone of pathos, the idyllic regret for
spent years over a strange example of jeweler's
subliuman and begging
elaboration, the bronze Easter candlestick for Sam'
evoked with poignant gesture, and with modeling
Antonio, Padua (1507-17).
that emphasizes extremities like an outstretched
and
It
is
twelve feet high
hundred of religious, allegorical, and pagan figures on its many levels. They
became his repertory, yielding hundreds of bronze
figurines (fig. 233), mostly pagan and literary
satyrs, nude shepherds, dragons, and, more startling,
freely intertwines
crabs, spiders,
lels to
patronage
186
and many
goats.
Giorgione are the small
— these are aesthetic
The
external paral-
scale, the
toys for
<
context of
onnoisseurs
classical
civilization or the sadness of the satyr caught in the
for
alms or love. \\\
this
is
hnger or pointed chin, and also presents the body
with balanced weights
as a satisfactory solid base
of
its
parts.
Such depth of feeling
ing in what at
first
small scale of Riccio's
tiie
is
the
more
sober-
seems a virtuoso plaything.
work and
its
The
separateness from
standard family tree of sculpture has led to
neglect of
him
in general surveys, bin he
angelos most original contempoiar\
is
Mi( hel-
Palma; Sebastiano del Piombo
i6.
Two
Venetian painters
had claims
in Giorgione's age
to share his revolution,
group
but botli soon
Palma (docs.
Palma V'ecch io, Palma the elder,
to distinguish him from Palma Giovane, a grandnephew) came from the provincial city of Bergamo,
on the border between Venetian and Milanese
drifted toward other magnets. Jatopo
1
5 1 o-d. 1528; called
territory,
and always retained
links there.
tinct small tradition of painting in that
finely
The
dis-
town
is
represented at this time by Giovanni Cariani
(docs.
1509-1547);
he
painted
figures
in
large
squarish planes near the front of his space, parallel
to us
but with sensitive velvet and fleshy textures,
so that in portraits especially they
maintain a digni-
somewhat
more
heavier and
insistently
reflection of Titian
is
impressive later painting
(fig.
23.^),
pastoral
where
.Sebastiano del
emerges
tive
is
a Biblical
and amorous
as a painter
material,
and the
The most
equally external.
Jacob Meeting Rachel
theme
legitimizes the
interests.
Piombo
with a
set
(docs.
1
r,i
i-d.1547)
of saints whose tenta-
movements, downward gaze, and subtly dimmed
spaces are decisively Giorgionesque.^^ But he transferred his career quickly to
Peruzzi's
a series
newly built Chigi
Rome, and painted
villa (151
1;
for
see p. 175)
of scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses, the
Fall of Icarus
and
others.
a still brighter sky
The
bright figures against
have a Venetian breeziness that
old-
was certainly interesting to Raphael, but Sebastiano
fashioned tradition in altarpieces, but he offers a
admired Raphael even more, making silhouettes of
fied presence.
Palma always liked
drenched Giorgionesque
a
effect in his early portrait
curving bodies emphasize their dramatically indic-
he surrounds
ative gestures. Ever dependent. Sebastiano attached
traditionally labeled ".^riosto."^" In
a
soft,
tired
face
it
with sumptuous
hair,
laurel
branches, and big red sleeves, vividly combining
himself to Michelangelo to render his concepts
works
The most
extraordinary result
he treats the motifs with greater superficiality, and
two stony
figures with undetailed
they seem Giorgionesque only in official type. .Saints
a
meadows and plump blond nudes are all
backed up by heavy foliage; the men have feelings
but the women are only pretty. The forms grow
from
allusions to luxury
and poetry. But
sitting in
234.
in later
in
painting, which the master did not enjoy doing.
deep mooidit
a
is
a Pietfi
brown
(fig.
235),
surfaces in
sky, a tonal sculpture. Later, aside
few altarpieces, Sebastiano restricted himself
to portraits,
and
in that
breadth of design.
He
narrow range treated novel
loosened the normal limita-
Jacopo Palma.
Jacob Meeting Rachel.
Canvas. 4*9" x 8'3".
Gemaldcgalerie, Dresden
is:
Seeastiano del Piombo
235'
Pietd.
Panel, 8'io" y i'^".
Mu'ipn Civico, Vilerbn
and
periments, had anticipated this play uith the tension
instead to temporal or narrative painting
between icon and narrative, and Raphael had used
the design without the narrative implications.) At
tion of portraiture as an iconic, timeless image,
allied
it
by showing
his cardinals
their secretaries,
who are
and
officials
chatting with
painted as smaller portraits
at their sides; the central portrait retains its
patterns, only
its
outward relationships change.
(Mantegna and Jacopo
17.
formal
de'
Barbari, in single ex-
about
forty-five .Sebastian
obtained a sinecure and
stopped painting almost entirely, having also quarreled with Michelangelo
He
and
lost this last crutch.
apparentlv could not accept his
own
talent.
Ferrara and Bologna
By 1500 there was a modern
artist
or two in every
town, with some autonomy of regional
in the fifteenth century
visitors like
style.
Bologna
had made do with important
less important
Jacopo della Querela, or
ones like Marco Zoppo (1433-1478), who, in
Ills
shiny, tortuous figures, was a weaker provincial
fol-
lower of Mantegna than Tura and Crivelli were in
their provinces. Ercole de' Roberti came from
Ferrara in the 1480s,
and
his forceful style
strong influence here as elsewhere.
From
had
that back-
ground two young Bolognese painters emerge in
the 1490s, their eagerness for modernity enhanced
by the crossroads location of the city, between Florence, Milan, and Venice. But the sources they
tapped were not the most favorable.
who
Francesco Francia (docs. 1479-d. 1517),
started as a goldsmith, painted an early masterpiece
Stephen
in his.Sai>i(
A/ar/yr^c/,'"'
sheet of tin crutiipling as
suggesting a bright
by stones, and
hit
is
it
strongly centered in the saint's eye with
keen
its
glance of pain. His partner Lorenzo Costa (docs.
1
483-d. 1535)
at
formulated a
hrst
copied Tura, but then he
Robertian
type of spindly
against a pale sky which he retained through
These
shifting versions.
was to
painters'
a N'enetian key, consisting
Giovatmi
many
self-revision
mainly of a use of
compositional arrangements for
Bellini's
altarpieces, with
first
figure
thrones under pavilions, and a
and it seems to have
come less frotn Bellini himself than from imitators
like Bartolommeo Montagna and Francesco Bonsignori. \ more serious though still superficial
modernism they then adopted was Leonardesque
shadow, but again it utilizes the work of Leonardo's
slighter use of his figure types;
literal imitators in
produces a
snaky form and a devout gaze.
soft
Perugino's
Milan, like Giampietrino, and
visit to
Bologna,
when he was
236.
Garofalo. Ceiling
fresco. 1519.
Diameter including painted balcony
lo'i 1"
Palazzo del Seminario. Ferrara
past his
prime, stimulated a slight modification toward
a
more old-fashioned modeling, clean and round.
The
result of all this, in
and Costa heads,
is
many
Francia .Madonnas
round substantial
faces, pleasant-
lygentle, lookingout from a
darkened space, another
on the
art,
\ariation
soft
post-primitive
devoutly
plain but easy, that later attracted Victorian admirers. The style is also important because it spread
among the two hundred pupils of Francia and Costa,
who apparently conducted something closer to a
school than a shop.
These pupils worked
chicflv in
Ferrara.
Of them, Ortolano
l)eautiful,
brightly
identical,
lit
(docs. i5i2-i-,24) painted
archaistic
altarpieces,
figures in landscapes,
drawn
with
in slightly
angular planes. Garofalo (docs. I50i-d.i559) began
with a brilliant variation in Ferrara on Mantegna's
ceiling
(fig.
But then, after a
repeating
iiiodcliiig
seem
fig. 134), where a chorus of
and gentlemen looks down at us.
236; see
Costa-like ladies
little
visit to
Rome, he spent
Holy Families,
all
forty years
with a classical
and suavity borrowed from Raphael,
a little
thai
strange in ilu-stinng.even.earlv Reiiais-
237.
Altobello Melone.
Massacre of thr Innocents. 1516-17.
^'i 1". Cathedral. Cremona
Fresco, ^'y"
opportunity was the big fresco series in Cremona
Cathedral, shared (1510-19) with others, including
Altobello Melone (docs. 1516-1517), whose style
also
comes from Costa. Both, with
drawing,
let
self-assured figure
their hard, individualized people col-
lide in energetic scenes
have taken the lead in
(fig.
237). Altobello
may
other work of his
this;little
known, but he seems to have
mixing a broad swashy
brush stroke with ideas from Diirer woodcuts to
apparently short
had exceptional
life is
talents,
tough mercenary soldiers, sharp-nosed
represent
merchants
earlier
to
and equally down-to-earth
in big hats,
versions of Christ.
The
accompany
developed
crisp technique,
a neat sort of image,
underpins scenes with very
little
now
composition at
all,
tending instead to pour out notes of observed action.
The
Amico
oddest Costa pupil was
(docs. i5o6-d.i522),
whose
when he
of vitality took him,
hunt
restless
Pinturicchio's fancy ornaments
visited
and
Aspertini
for devices
Rome,
to
to ancient battle
sarcophagi whose scrambling crowds he recorded in
drawings; appeals to antiquity
He
often far from academic.
the frescoes of Filippino
238.
Miracle ofS. Frediano.
ing,
own
swirl
sometimes with one puffed cheek, often in rags
and Lucca
(fig.
238), he seems to have
turned to sculpture. His squirming masterpiece,
Sicodemus with the Dead Christ*" comes from
the
who went back to his parenCremona and painted many crisph
tradition of .Niccolo dell' .Area's tableaux (see
fig.
town of
drawn round-eyed Madonnas. His one spectacular
171)
but has a High
Renaissance
command
of
broader, imposing forms.
Dosso and His Successors
brilliant developer of Giorgiones approach was Dosso (docs. 151 2-d. 1542), a probable
native of Ferrara who stayed at home, apart from
The most
and was the resident court artist. His
made to accomfirst major work was a Bacchanal*^
pany Giovanni Bellini's Feast of he Gods and muc h
brief trips,
I
influenced by
190
His
by an older pupil, Boccaccio Boccaccino
(docs. 1493-d. 1524/25),
18.
Lippi.
and ribbons, an undigested tumult of small original
ideas. After two sets of narrative frescoes in Bologna
(1506)3^
tal
were
Lucca
sance ligluiiig. Both of them are probably affected
as well
this date
nervously with fantasy figures, swimmingand crouch-
Amico Aspertini.
Fresco, io'4"X9'9". S. Frediano,
at
perhaps admired most
it,
with clean cylindrical figures relax-
ing in a
meadow. But
tliis
indirect approach to
Giorgione soon gives way to direct attachment. His
activity has to be reconstructed
tinct strands.
One
is
service of the ducal pleasures,
ings of flowers, animals, a
painting,
and designs
from
.several dis-
in the records of his lifelong
which led
to paint-
panorama of FeiTara, scene
for pottery; all
were made
for
and the
Ariosto, spinner of tales of love, dragons,
duke's chivalrous ancestors. Besides the Allegory 0/
and
Music*'*
Painting
Jove
greatest of these
Melissa
is
(fig.
Bullerflies*^
the
239), a witch seeking
inspiration like a .Michelangelo sibyl, a grand seated
figure wearing a dress as rich as a rug in
its
tone. She holds a smoldering torch; a big
depth of
dog and
a suit of armor
lie
beside her; trees close in and
shadow
far
away, soldiers are sitting on the
her;
and
ground. With garden-like nature, colorful
glitter,
and enticing strange themes, the picture is totalis
Giorgionesque in its evocation of magic fxietry.
But the sensual immediacy is stronger in flavor now.
perhaps under the influence of court niterests.
Dosso's
many
associates
were
in general
more
academic; the repetitive small bright scenes by his
brother Battista
(d.
1548)
and Mazzolino
(docs.
1504-1528) are toward the Raphaelesque end of
Dosso's range. His truest follower
ation, Niccolo dell'
and
^u
239.
in a later gener-
the French court he painted fresco
series for rich houses,
with illustrations of Virgil
and Ariosto and leisured people in meadows. His
series of musicians and card players (fig. 240) charms
Dosso. Melissa. Canvas,
Galleria Borghese,
later at
is
Abbate (1512-1571). In Bologna
Rome
us by itseffect of telling us about social reality, going
one more stage than Dosso toward simple refxjrting,
away from Giorgione's poetic heightening of such
moment and
the
lost,
but they provide
a suggestive
correction to our usual ideas of Renaissance themes.
A hint of these nonliterary, nonhuman images
remains in the deep sweeping landscapes between
caryatids
and an arbor
that he painted in a rare
away,*^ under the influence perhaps of the
visit
Farnesina frescoes in Rome.
\n
experience. But actually
it
aristocratic social life seen a
in International
the same record of
hundred years earlier
is
Gothic domestic
frescoes, as in the
Borromeo house in Milan. Only the fashions have
changed, and they now follow Giorgionesque
pastoral.
intermediate tone
appears in the small diamond-shaped ceiling paintings
for
FeiTara,^^
and
giinning
^^,^f,
violent
heads. All this seems quite separate from the formal
works, church altarpieces that are
Raphaelesque
as
figures turning in
is
in
small
more and more
time goes on, with substantial
broad movements.
A
third strand
Madomias, mythologies, and scenes
and
a
wisp for a
figure's
arm. Small figures with ardeiu movements, in glowing colors, are
a
drowned
in nature, in
high grass 01
climip of bushes.
In a few of his masterpieces Dosso blends
his possibilities; these are
still
all
mostly works of bizarre,
unexplained subjects, produced no doubt on
the basis of the
whims of
N1CCOL6 dell' Abbate. Card Players.
Fresco, 7'i" x iS'G".
Palazzi) drllTniversiLi,
apparently of the moment, painted in swift strokes,
a spatter for a trees foliage
240.
local poets like the great
Boloena
Young Titian
ig.
Though
Titian (docs. ijio-d.isyS) was probably a
pupil of Giorgione's, he
first
appears
at
age twenty
him with the effectiveness of a
young genius and vigorous extremism. Titian's
rebelling against
known
earliest
a joint
works, outdoor frescoes painted in
commission with Giorgione,''^ are
in ruins,
Woman Taken
in Adiil-
but the Christ with the
lery*'' is
probably of the same moment. Physicallv
emphatic people meet
quick imorganized way,
in a
bumping
with forward pressures and
oddly rough proportions
depth.
He
in
homage
pays automatic
the slightly
dimmed
knees,
head height and
to his
and
spatial
master in
continuity of very rich trans-
lucent color areas, but he also appeals to prestigious
masters one degree more removed, such as
Man-
tegna and Diirer, and asserts the immediate, sen-
suous factuality and
warm energy
are always fundamental in him.
of the body that
Soon he modifies
the contrast, and a swiftly painted set of frescoes
in Padua (151 1) shows us people still heavy, thick,
and sparkling with life but for the most part stand-
ing in passive rows
proportioned
normal
in
them very
241). Titian's use of big
(fig.
figures,
majestic
and imposing,
241.
is
the High Renaissance, but he makes
alive
by infusions of
light,
evading the
become academic and
dead. In contrast with Michelangelo (who works
with potential power), he would persuade us of the
glowing life of quite passive people. In the Padua
frescoes only one scene, representing a murder,
shows foreshortening in the Mantegna formula of
tendency of massive forms
shock (see
to
p. 109).
In a few years Titian's expressive
mood moved
completely into the Giorgionesque vein, most obviously in the famous Concert
subject
is
suitable.
The
(fig.
242),
where the
close-up figures evoke the
sensuous experience of art as they listen intently
and watch each
other's reactions. Yet the central
motif is muscular, the
elastic
diagonal pull between
the fingers pressing the keys and the neck turned
242.
Titian. The Concert. Canvas. 43" x 48
Pitti Palace,
192
Florence
The
Titian,
Xliracle of the Speaking Injant.
Fresco, io'6"x io'4".
Scuola del Santo, Padua
the opposite way. In the I'lirec Ages of
empty landscape
Tempest, but
Man** an
the tenter, as in Giorgione's
fills
at the sides the figures
iheir bodies. Simpler
again
with
feel
works are single female
fig-
Salome*^ or the Girl Comhing Her Hair,^"
ures,
only slightly into objects of aesthetic
girls idealized
The
key painting of the group is Sacred
and Profane Love (colorplate 31), the nudity of the
girl yearning for Heaven balanced with the pleasure
admiration.
of rich materials in the earthlv
to
girl's
robe.
Thev
sit
be contemplated, in large symmetry, before a
landscape whose distant sunset
is
more
one of
like
vaguer mysteries of Giorgione's
Bellini's than the
lights.
styles
Pendulum swings between forceful and quiet
seem to mark Titian's life, and the huge As-
sumption (1516-18; fig. 243) reverts to the
grandeur of almost a decade earlier. It is set
end of
a long
Gothic church, pulling
focus.
Above
the
arms
is
brawny
of a
heavy yet soaring
sailing robes
and clouds of
and God the
angels, then another slice of sky
ther.
at the
space into
apostles with glistening
a slice of deep sky, then the
Mary suirounded by
its
active
Fa-
Luminous big colored forms are the elements
physical life that moves with smooth excite-
ment. Other altarpieces of the following years, using
similar sandwiches
made of forms and
sky
and
freely
borrowing poses from Michelangelo but refusing
his psychological implications, alternate
with Bac-
chanals that continue the series begun by Giovanni
Bellini for the
duke of Ferrara
(see colorplate 30).
The Worship
of Venus (ijiS),'^' a packed sea of
tumbling cupids kissing and fighting, and the Andrians (1518-19),^^ dancers and drinkers around a
river of wine, culminate in Bacchus
(1523;
ards
fig.
moving diagonally
ward the
and Ariadne
244), a procession with satyrs
sky.
The
across a
a
to-
surprising altarpiece for the
Pesaro family (finished 1526)^*
and saints along
columns rise up
and leop-
sunny island
sets the
Madonna
diagonal line in depth, while
in front of
and behind drifting
clouds; but the donors, the real contemporary people,
kneel in
Toward
stiff
archaic profile on the front plane.
1530 textures of cloth and
flesli
be-
new group of quiet
works, including many portraits. A nude in furs
and earrings shows us textures that seem more high-
come
ly
the chief coticerns of a
charged
in the painting
than in real
life
243.
Titian
Thi Asiumpiion of ihe Vugtn. 1516-1J
Panel, 22'6"x
1
Church of ihe
Frari,
1'lo".
Venice
because
the focused light enhances the already special limitation to their visual qualities
only.''''
Such pictures
193
244-
Titian.
Bacchus and Ariadne. 1523.
Canvas, 69" x 75".
National Gallery, London
were enjoyed by Titian's lordly patrons
woman
as
"the
in the blue dress" or "the
as illustrations
nude" more than
of namable topics. Meanwhile the
was created a count by the
artist lived luxuriously,
Holy Roman emperor, and enjoyed the most
20.
and talented
the procedures of Venetian painting.
own
who
painted in
distinct styles failed in their careers.
The
landscape making a contrast between disorder, a
Riccio-like satyr,
brilliant Lotto (docs. 1503-d. 1556) shares a rebel-
calm classicism of preceding traditions with Titian and other major and
lious agitation against the
minor contemporaries; but unluckily
his rebellion
Such
to
Madonnas with
garments and wriggling
folds.
altar-
we have many
luminous cubic
effect in the Bellini tradition. Its
allegorical cover-paneP^
194
masters a gently
is
more unusual,
a pastoral
and
such figures appear not in traditional
in distress, in flapping
been deeply taught by his old master Alvise Vivarini, and rebels only in the self-conscious layers of
his painting. His earliest distinctive work, the por(1505),^-''
of current fashion soon yields
saints tossing their heads,
then to altarpieces where sculptural figures twist
When
of Bishop Rossi
and order, a child with compasses.
command
was also antimodern, seeking against the grain to
conserve a figure-space duality (see p. 138). He had
trait
society of Venice, while at
showed business acumen in his
contracts and assembled a huge crew of assistants.
At forty he no longer had any rivals and dominated
the same time he
Lotto, Pordenone
Venetians of Titian's age group
their
in-
teresting
more psychological works,
unquiet portraits and scenes
pieces but in less formal,
like Susaiina
sharp,
and
Ifie
Elders (1517),^' whose neat
space, with bright realistic
contains bodies
background landscape,
swung around under pressure
built
up and not released. In Christ faking Leave of His
Mother (1521; fig. 245) the thick forms flop on the
gvouiul,
and
in the
Iniiiinc latititi''^
an angel with
dislocated bones gieets Mai7, who, overcome, flutters
hand along the
her
were a window while a
front plane as though
them. Lotto absorbs poses from
which many action-minded
it
between
realistic cat races
German
prints,
were
Italian painters
using, into his Venetian vehicle of colored throb-
And
bing surfaces.
he was modern in his concern
with the potential mobility of all his figures. But he
resists
to
the
modern unity of the
keep the figures
as they
were
as distinct
visual field,
and seeks
from their background
more
and
environment must
in the early Renaissance, with
its
stable images. Since Lotto's people are alive
irregular, their duality with the
be a discordant one, and their
restless
probing un-
balance seems to evoke their uncomfortable relation
They tautly offer papers, nervously
up flower petals, or merely stare with a pain
more poignant because of Lotto's mastery of
to the world.
tear
the
vivid tonal harmonies.
Pordeiione (1483-1539) learned to paint fresco cvcles in churches in provincial mouruain towns
north of Venice.
tal
A
visit to
central Italy about 1515
Taking Liave of His Mothtr. 1521.
Canvas, 50" x 39".
Staatliche Musecn, Berlin-Dahlcm
result
tian's
an imagery of power that
is
Assumption, painted
the same
Christ
left
perhaps also the spatial daring of Melozzo da
The
at the
Cremona Cathedral
Forli.
rivals Ti-
same inoment. In
where Boccac-
cycle
and
a
masterpiece in his .scenes of Christ's Passion and
as a
on the thrust of muscular forms and thick spiraling lines. These occur
fig.
246), based
folds, horses' thick manes, sickles, and turand then in muscles powering swords and
ropes which are propelled like whips or lassos, so
in
wool
bans,
that
The
we
feel
how
they inexorably hit their victims.
large scale harnesses the space
246.
Christ
Pordenone.
Led
to
Calvary.
1521. Fresco, io'8"x24';
Cathedral,
Cremona
between walls
ceilings,
dome
cino and others worked, Pordenone produced a
death (1521;
Lorenzo Lotto.
245.
him excited about the monumengrandeur of Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling, and
seems to have
where angels tumble from the
side of
or a false prophet from the sky. After years
journeyman in many sinall-town churches, Pordenone came to Venice when he was almost fifty,
proposing to compete with Titian. He benefited
from Titian's increasing work for foreign lords and
kings and lessening interest in \'enetian jobs, but
just as
lie
Pordenone received his official appointment
and his achievements remain little known
died,
because of their obscure locations.
2
1
.
Savoldo,
Romanino
The
flourishing
town of
on the road
Brescia,
tween Venice and Milan, belonged
be-
in the fifteenth
century to Milan and sent Foppa there, but in the
sixteenth to X'enice and sent Savoldo there. Giro-
lamo Savoldo
his adult life,
him was
at
(docs.
1508-1548) lived in Venice
and the
all
label "Brescian school" for
one time the
result of local pride,
more
recently a hasty deduction from the great gulf be-
tween him and Titian.
If
the Venetian school
means
the style of Titian, then Savoldo has to belong to
school, but in fact he, like Lotto, was a
some other
product of a different X'enetian strain. Perhaps
trained by Cima, he kept
ioned sense of the
He seems
separate.
pictures
his
figure
and
—most
little
all his life to
human form
on
to insist
as
it,
exceptionally
more, a heroic
the old-fash-
impenetrable and
in that nearly all
—
^represent
one
static mass. \'isiting
Florence in his youth, he shared the general attraction to northern art, but, again old-fashioned, seems
247.
GiROLAMO Savoldo.
Approaching
Si.
Mary Magdalent
Ike Sepulchre.
Canvas, 34" X 31
1/4".
National Galler>', London
to
have liked Van der Goes
best.
His early Sealed
Hermits^^ show the resultant mountain-like
figures,
and complex in silhouette, deep and rich in
color. He was tempted a little later by Giorgione,
when Titian was, but found in Giorgione an
aid toward quietude; Savoldo's Holy Families and
stable
musicians
sit
in the dusky, subtle air, translating
pastoral dreaminess into passive grandeur. His con-
servatism
248.
GiROLAMO ROMANLNO.
The Death of Cleopatra.
Fresco, width at base S'g".
Castello del Buonconsiglio, Trent
and
it is
is
shy rather than combative like Lotto's,
typical that despite lack of success,
in X'enice instead of
moving about
he stayed
as Lotto
and
COLORPLATE
29.
GioRGioNE. The Tempesl.
1.
1503-6. Canvas. 30
"
x 29
".
Accadcmia, Venice
colorplat:
Giovanni Bellini. Tin
National C.
of Art, \Vashington. D.C.
Fiiisl
of tin- Gods. 1514. Caii\£
Widcncr Collection
«7"-
74"
COLORPLATh
^:.
I
I
'/'';-»,- A'.:.. ..1-
(..ill.-ii.,
l',.,r'l..-.
R.
COLORPLATE 32
Metropolitan
GiROLAMO Savoi.do.
Museum
of Art,
New
.SV.
Mallhew.
1.
1
1:52
Clanvas, 37"
York. Purchase 1912, MarquancI
Fund
4i(
losing a job for
he competed with Michelangelo, Sansovino went
drastic results.
went
al-
strain.
contemplative, like a ma-
turer version of the Sistine Artiim (see
but
a
I
more than
closest,
upward along her curved base as is suitable
and in the proce,ss suggesting panic
To
is
thin-cheeked, richly ornamented beauty of
a
figures seein often in
role,
But
it
be remembered as passion-
Dawn comes
they candidly are.
but
Elizabeth
is
most l.eonardesque grace. .Similar ornament and
proportions mark the two dukes, who seem to origi-
and assurance of the Haidiin lecalU
number
around
for
a
of their portraits. His career centered
huge marble
bloc k
which was
first
meant
Michelangelo, then for him, then for Michelan
gelo again, and finally cai\ed by
him
into the Her-
and Catiis (finished 1534; fig. 256). It was set
beside, and meant to complement. Michelangelo's
(tiles
big Dnx'id (sec
fig.
202). F.veii
thirty years older, the
though the David was
Hc)iiile\
looked old-fash-
ioned simple mi ncled.boxv. and inflexible. almost a
:
20.0
set
of four planes with lines cut on them.
geometric logic of design which constricts
dinelli
see
It
it;
has a
Ban-
was a devotee of theory who could never
why his well-planned works were not as well liked
and he made it more difficult
as Michelangelo's,
by always seeking large commissions. His schematic
drawings
are, if
mannered, strong and intense, and
he was an effective teacher. Perhaps he can be most
happily remembered through an untypical work
made on
his design,
an engraving of his studio
night with his pupils drawing
among
the lamps
257). Flatness, linearity, small scale,
theme are
In
all
a
at
(fig.
and personal
favorable.
younger generation Guglielmo della
Porta (docs.
i534-d.i577)
is
belies the supposition that in
a fine sculptor
Rome
there were only Michelangelo
who
in the 1540s
and some
slavish
imitators of him. Delia Porta had the typical back-
ground of
'55
Jacopo Sanjo\"ino.
Bacchus. 1512.
Marble, height 57".
Museo Nazionale,
Bargello. Florence
256,
Baccio Bandinelli.
Htrcutcs and Cacus. 1534.
Marble, height i6'4".
Piazza della Signoria, Florence
206
a
Lombard
stonecutter, as apprentice
to
and then coUaboraloi
these long modest years
traiture
and
lie
ornament.
for
in 1537. .Michelangelo
He
polished a zest for por-
When
he came to
Rome
had retired from new sculp-
ture projects of large scale,
fluenced him.
an uncle. During
witli
and encouraged and innew styles he found
took to the
with skilled comprehension, like other traveling
carvers from
Lombardy before
(see p.
ij')-
On
Michelangelo's recommendation he was assigned
(1549) the
tomb
of his
on
life
of Pope Paul III, and spent the rest
it.
He planned
a
huge freestanding
block with eight allegories, reflecting Michelan
gelo's tombs of Pope Julius and the Medici dukes,
and proposed the four seasons
as a
theme,
like the
Medici Chapel times of day. But the consultant on
and steered him to Roman
and Michelangelo vetoed the scale of the
allegory rejected this
coins,
plan because
finally his
it
took too
much space
in Saint Peter's;
nude JusI ice was covered up.
.\s
a result
258.
GlGLlELMO
Pope Paul
III.
ol these lalamities
where
.-\gosii.\o
Veneziano
Baccio Bandinelli:.
(after
a drawing by
Sculptor's Studio. 1531.
Engraving. 12" x 11". The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York. Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1949
di
he
Capodimonte, Naples
now shows up
best in his por-
of Pope Paul HI, in Saint Peter's and else-
traits
257.
DELljV PoRTA.
1546. Marble, height 30'.
Museo Nazionale
(fig.
rhetoric.
a firm
25S), with a masterly
The
and
sweep of grand
sharply expressive solid head makes
lively center,
and colored marble, used
with great aplomb, reveals that he has grasped
new
style, Titian's, after
portrayed the pope (see
ful
Titian visited
fig.
279).
a
Rome and
He imposes a force-
order on the pulsating and gaudy materials.
'_>()"
Pontormo, Rosso
2 5-
Following Fra Bartolommeo and Andrea del Sarto,
bodies twisting around each other, with masklike
and round
harmonies of pink
the bright young painters in Florence were Andrea's
faces
Pontormo ( 494- '557) emerged at twenty
as the chief talent. Not surprisingly, he was a superb
draftsman, and followed his master's accomplished
and icy blue. In his drawings of the same time line
becomes autonomous, as the contours of bodies are
assistants.
1
harmonies,
a slightly
if in
Visitation (1514-16),'"
cal fresco of peasant
Poggio
a
less
relaxed way. His
and the pastoral-mythologi-
pagans
Caiano (1520-21;
in the
fig.
Medici
259), a
villa at
sunny genre
scene, have contour lines a bit sharper than
drea's
and the forms are pulled more
er, less like
Leonardo. Perhaps
but
reflects unsureness,
principle
it is
tautly togeth-
higher tension
maintained
as a positive
Passion frescoes for a convent
the
where Diirer prints are used as
source. The figures, no longer easy and cushioned,
(1522-24;
a
in
this
An-
fig.
260),
shaped into ornamental rhythms. This
ism, in
which
style
is
nature, but for presenting
including previous
is
Manner-
not a pattern for presenting
styles.
own technical vehicles,
The resulting new forms
its
and distortion of nature are personally bold and
imply sophisticated culture in the audience. Theories of its rise
have included inner
stress
and emo-
tional reaction to the decline of Italy or of the
Catholic Church as powers. But the forms seem to
use distortion
no more
in tragic
than
in
amusing
themes, and in the tragic theme of Christ's death
simply retain the traditional Renaissance point of
thin; in Christ before Pilate, a
view that the work should bring out the dramatic
skeletal Christ in white, isolated in the middle,
qualities of the assigned subject. (Such an attitude
become bony and
tall
eyes, in bizarre
bows his head while the
behind him and down to
ment altarpiece
pears
(
1
floor strangely shoots
Then
lacks the personal
emphasis of modern painting,
in the Eutonih-
but would be familiar today for actors or architects.)
525-28; colorplate 34) space disapis a card house of linear
ported by Pontormo's behavior, which was eccen-
us.
and the composition
259.
up
Jacopo Pontormo.
But
a source of
Verlumnus and Pomona. 1520-21. Fresco. I5'X33'.
Villa at Poggio a Caiano [near Florence;
Jw^': •.3"'?'^
Mannerism
in inner stress
is
sup-
impracticable people was translated,
to
Rome,
into superb
and
when he went
influential engravings.
He was still more influential after he fled the Sack
Rome and went to the court of Francis of France,
who had had |X)or luck with his previous invitations
of
to
I
Leonardo and .\ndrea del
ten years
at
Sarto.
Rosso stayed
the palace of Fontainebleau, painted
mythologies in a long gallery, framed them in stucco
moldings of an elaborate decorative
logic,
and
start-
ed the Fontainebleau school, which specialized in
erotic scenes filled with stylish figures too tall
and
willowy to be possible.
26o.
Jacopo Pontormo.
Christ brfou Pilale
1524-27. Fresco, q'lo" x g'G".
Certosa del Galluzzo. Florence
and
trie
making him
antisocial,
concerned with daily meals,
art. It is
finally a recluse
a few friends,
and
his
not likely that he was anxious to state a
pessimistic view of public affairs.
The main
result
of his personal quirks was that after his great decade
he subsided into court [xjrtraiture of a sure-handed
artificialitv.
reer.
set
Rosso {1495-1540; had an identical early caHis frescoed Assumption (1517).^' in the same
with Pontormo's Visitation,
drea;
it
uses
its
command
is
further from .An-
of realism to produce
caricatured faces. In his great Drposilioii from the
Cross (152
1
;
fig.
261
)
the controlled line
and model-
ing are so abstract that the too-tall figures are geo-
metric colored planes, often lozenge-shaped, which
are assembled into irregular prisms or polygons.
Only
here, in Rosso as in
tragic in effect.
The
Pontormo,
is
color planes again
the stress
mark
his
Moses Defending the Daughters of Jrthro (colorplate 35), and often build up the figures, color units
of
artificial
rainbow sequences,
unstated spaces.
The
in
elegance of his
implied but
tall,
hot -toned.
261.
Rosso FlORENTTNO.
Deposition from the Cross.
Panel, 11'^ 6'6".
Pinacoieca Comunale. Volierra
209
26.
Beccafumi, Parmigianino
Mannerist
style
in
painting emerged in various
any further, and who simply refine the harmonious
where several conditions
formulas. Their pupils from the beginning learn
places at once, but only
were present.
It
is
the third stage, following
first
High Renaissance as an unprecedented harmonious formulation of nature (by Leonardo, Michelangelo, or Raphael), and a second
stage of great or minor masters (Andrea del Sarto,
CoiTeggio. Sodoma) who cannot carry naturalism
the creation of the
and allusions
these sophisticated patterns by heart,
back to nature can easily fade away.
If
the pupil
is
talented, original, or rebellious, jxjwerful stylizations result.
The
key to this
second stage, so that the
first
is
the existence of the
Mannerists never had
direct contact with the intensive study of natural
forms by someone like Raphael, but only with the
intensive study of Raphael by a formal
stylist like
.Andrea del .Sarto.
It is not known whether Beccafumi (14X61551) was taught by Fra Bartolommeo or Sodoma,
both polished rearrangers of the forms of Leonardo.
Rome
Since Beccafumi was Sienese and visited
his youth,
Sodoma
is
in
his traditionallv assigned mas-
with a few compositional ideas adopted from
ter,
Fra Bartolommeo, but the opposite view
is
also
His sinuous figures and the archaeological
held.
element
seem
to
in his early works, like
confirm the tradition.
Sodoma's
The
in
figures,
Rome,
through
Sodoma's sweet and luminous ones, derive from
Leonardo's I.eda; in Beccafumi the S-curves be-
come
unrealistic patterns
inner glow shining out as
and the
if
light
through a
becomes an
plastic
mem-
These ghostly and sugary people
occupy an elegantly distorted and patterned space,
making large and small figures that seem far from
brane
262).
(fig.
each other collide laterally.
compositions and
sets
He
borrows intricate
of scenes from the Raphael
shop. Despite his pleasure in yellows and pale pinks,
he
is
this
really a tone painter in the
is
Leonardo
tradition;
the context of his strongest technical crea-
tions, the gray
painted sketches on paper and the
stone inlay scenes for the floor of Siena Cathedral
(fig.
263).
Parmigianino
(1503-1540)
was a
brilliant
challenger at nineteen, in his native Parma, of the
twenty-eight-year-old CoiTeggio. His early female
saints in the
the
262.
Do.MEMCo Beccafumi.
dome
church where Coneggio had painted
(see colorplate 33),
in a villa, '^ suggest a rich
and
his
Greek myths
mobility of thin figures
Birlh oflht Virgin.
through long sketchy strokes that make up a pasty
Panel, 7'8" ^4'9"-
surface.
Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena
210
He
self-portrait
begins to play virtuoso games in a round
(fig.
264), in
which he paints
his
hand
263.
DoMENico BECCAFfMi. Moies
Receiving the Tablets of the
Law. 1531. Inlaid marble,
16'
x 24'6"
Cathedral, Siena
264.
Francesco Parmiciasino.
1524.
Panel, diameter 9".
Self-portrail.
Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
211
very large, as
it
would appear
at
the front of a mir-
rored space, not making the conventional readjust-
ment;
it is
his fortune.
He
de force of atnbiguous truths.
a tour
Rome
took this with him when he went to
There he was
attracted by the engrav-
ings of Rosso's work.
The
Madonnas only
more shiinmeringly
a little
to seek
result
was a
series of
colorful
than his earlier works, but with line that has
own
decorative
make
lengths and folds
marks.
The
home
produced
his
Long Neck
parallel
like rake
twists
and become hard,
style with him when
faces lose texture
beautiful masks.
he fled
its
Fingers grow to impossible
life.
He
took this
after the Sack of
Rome
in 1527,
and
it
best-known work, the Madonna nfl/ie
(1534;
fig.
265).
Her head and
feet, tiny
in proportion to her body, suggest the close kinship
of
this artificial
agined type that
beauty with fashion. This
many
chic elegance because
is
an im-
cultures have associated with
involves novel amusement,
it
sophisticated appreciation, and luxurious elaborateness. In
Parma he had an unhappy
life,
developing
a consuming interest in alchemical experiments to
the point of going to
jail for
breach of contract be-
cause he never finished his largest commission. But
the influence of his elegant formula was
enormous
through space and time.
265.
France-sco Parmigianino.
Madonna of the Long A'nk. Begun 1534.
Panel, 85" ^ 52".
Uffizi Gallery, Florence
27.
Mannerism
in Architecture
Like Brunelleschi and Bramante, the most brilliant
architects of Mannerist buildings
arts.
Michelangelo began
the Medici, and his
first
his
came from other
building activity for
actual walls were those of
the Medici Chapel (1520-21; see
fig.
252).
The
in-
terior surfaces are conceived as frames for the sculp-
sculpture, the unit
is
not the cut of a chisel but the
masonry block. Hence
ture of cubes,
tains this quality for
architecture
so
it
it
this
is
a sort of relief sculp-
and Michelangelo's architecture
is
some
free of
luiexpectedly
ties
re-
time. As nonprofessional
standard conventions, and
small capitals to wider pilas-
ture, following his earlier designs of the .Sistine
ters,
or leaves large blocks in narrow niches, setting
Ceiling and for a fagade for the Medici Chapel's
up
Mannerist
church,
like the
.San
Lorenzo. As a sculptor's frame,
it
is
full
of active projections and recessions, hui. unlike
212
a
/est for
paradoxical games.
It is also,
one statue finished here, the Xi^hl.
full
of
small elegant ornameiiiaiioii. Ilie lihrnrv built for
and inegularly
shifting, in
any
This
case.
per-
is
haps the earliest "grand staircase" in an interior,
with balustrades.
Romano
Giulio
(1. 199-'
546). the
with
painted
enterprises,
Raphael's
foreman of
to
allusion
sculpture and correct, somewhat drier line,
producing a cultured variation on Raphaels natu-
classical
ral
The
harmotiiousness.
Going
218).
to
Mantua
result
finest
is
the
in
Iraitsfiguration (see
lower part of Raphael's
fig.
in 1524 as court artist, he
designed everything, including the ducal plates
and spoons with realistic leaves and fish in them, a
Michelangelo.
266.
Laurentian Library,
Begun
S.
Stairhall,
playful fantasy
Lorenzo, Florence.
cio's inkwells.
1524. Entire height 48'8"
fresco the
levels of illusion that recalls Ric-
on
But
major work was
his
Palawo del
1 fc,
Giulio as an architect
is
to build
a country house
and
267).
(fig.
two steps from Bramante,
using the younger Antonio da Sangallo's neat
mulas of intersecting moldings and
the Medici (begun 1524;
fig. 2()(i)
in the
same con-
vent of San Lorenzo develops the paradoxes further.
The main reading room is again marked by small
that
we
are not surprised
games with them. In
down
at
tlie
when he
if
and the walls
in decay,
but we are also meant to
trivance.
The
disorder
attendants, Michelangelo said) develops witty
classical pilasters,
fice as
in ceiling
and
floor,
arti-
never before. Columns are recessed in walls
and they
is
over doors
tlie
deception
are
responds, perhaps, to the fact that this
in
which the human relation
267.
to
space
is
is
a staircase
unbalanced
white
but since they are on high ped-
on the floor but on brackets halfway up;
widen as they rise. The dynamic units
are now not blocks but whole building elements.
The disruption of our sense of normal security
pilasters
a con-
frescoes,
real horses stand before
way. In the most spectacular
and
it is
developed imaginatively in the
instead of being in front of tliem as usual,
rest not
know
unresolved pull between order and
where deceptively
estals
slips
the building were
have a strong functional rhythm of windows between supporting pilasters. But the entrance lobby
with its triple staircase (meant for a lord between
sharp ornament
so
plays Mannerist
courtyard a keystone
regular intervals, as
for-
pilasters,
is
not carried
room
all
all
the
four walls
one continuous fresco of gods fighting giants,
and gods throw boulders down on the giants and
toward us, leaving us shocked but amused and
appreciative.
More than twenty
years after the Villa Far-
nesina, Peruzzi (seep. 177),
Height 34'
Gliujo Romano. Courtyard. Palazzo del T*, Mantua. i.Vi7-34-
who was occupied mean-
Baldassare Peruzzi. Fa9acle,
268.
Palazzo Massimi
Rome.
time with routine work in small towns, built his
with the
Rome, Palazzo Massimi
(fig. 268). Again the facade is paper-thin and marked
by pilasters, but now it violates conventions star-
the
second masterpiece
tlingly,
always with the excuse of practical reasons.
The unique
today
it
—
in
is
curving front
justified
still
effectively bold
by the curve in the
did not appear in the
stories,
—
first
project.
street,
but
The
four
with their unique rising rhythm of large,
large, small, small, trail off in
an unbalanced way,
but with a reference to the real nature of attic
stories.
28.
The
portico, deeply
shadowed
flat
wall,
meaning of
seems
64'
suck us
to
front porches.
such transferred suggestion
pairs of pilasters
changing from
middle of a
flat
to
is
in,
The
at
and
peak in the
its
pilasters
to
columns right
to
wall,
in
the
excuse of shifting from
where wall
shifts
porch.
to
two simultaneous rhythms (unchanging
changing
refers to
ingenuity of
running across the front
pair, with the
thick
Colonne,
alle
X 92'
round, and back to
flat)
The
pairs; flat
symbolize the
interplay of pure and applied thinking about design.
The
building remained without successors.
in tension
Perino del Vaga;
Florentine Decorative Sculpture
The
Florentine Perino del X'aga (1501-1547) joined
Raphael's workshop
sistants
at a late stage,
when older
were doing most of the painting.
He
as-
took
part in small units of big decorations, notablv in
the ceiling ol the X'atican loggia,'-' biu emerges
clearly later as perhaps the
to
Raphael
214
in
painting.
more
most talented successor
He
was drawn into the
Mannerist orbit of Parmigianino and Rosso, with
whom
he collaborated on
and one of his fellow
(docs.
engiavings,
a project for
pupils, Polidoroda Caravaggio
I5i9-d.i543), painted outdoor murals on
house fionts
—none survives—which seem
been in the lead of the new decorative
may have
originated the approach that
to
style.
we
have
Here
find full-
.*)9
Perjso del V'aga.
Thr Fall of the Giants.
Begun 1528.
Fresco, about 2i'4"x 29'6"
Palazzo Doria,
270.
Genoa
Benvenuto Cellini. Diana. 1543-44.
The Louvre, Paris
Bronze, 6'9"x is's".
fledged in Perino after
fled the
lie
Sack
ol
Rome
Several talented Florentine sculptors of Perino's age
group were decorators
and painted in the new palace of .Andrea Doria, the
new ruler of Genoa (fig. 269). The frescoed scenes
They were
are rhythmic patterns of people, gracefully active,
after 1540,
filling the ft-ame
with an even density and avoiding
depth. Each figure
is
an ornament
in itself as well,
with curving linear elegance. This very influential
style
is
parallel to Rosso's at Forilainebleau.
years later Peririo returned to
Rome and
Ten
painted
a
similar palace interior, the
remodeled Castel
Angelo, for Pope Paul
III.
Conscious of Michelan-
gelo's potent presence,
he modified his
sculptural
monochromes of
Sant'
frie/es into
larger scale, emphasiz-
ing pure formalism even more.
He
used a large
in the
under the aegis of the new ducal court
and away from Michelangelo. Niccolo Tribolo
(1500-1550), though a pupil of Jacopo Sansovino's,
spent years assisting Michelangelo and others on
large projects, until he came into his own with a
series of
complex fountains,
a typical display object
of the court. His are indeed the
that leads to Bernini's in
is
a fat, energetic,
cularity
tially a
is
a
nod
typical figure
dancing baby, whose vivid musto Michelangelo.
But
it
is
essen-
descendent of Sansovino's Bacchus and early
Renaissance Florentine carving in
Rome
forms and harmonious mobilitv.
came.
in the line
first
Rome. His
shop, from which most of the leading painters of
in the next generation
same mood.
slower in maturing, and flourished best
its
solid simple
215
The much more famous Benvenuto
Cellini
(1500-1571) began as a jeweler and goldsmith
Florence.
He
turned
on
to large sculpture
in
a trip
Fontainebleau, and his Diana for the top of a
to
gate there
is
a figure of graceful artifice, not surpris-
ingly in the Rosso style, with long graceful legs
Coming home, he secured
tiny feet
(fig.
his great
ducal commission for the Perseus
270).
a bronze to be set in the
main
city
and
(1545)
(fig.
271),
square beside the
and Bandinelli
two of these had been civic symbols, but
now were regarded virtually as a museum of
statues by Donatello, Michelangelo,
(the
all
first
Florentine
art).
goldsmith in
The
its
detailing of the
main
with authority.
Peiseus, though
it
reveals the
elaborate base and the polished
It
is
figure,
handles
its
grand
scale
from the special
thus, apart
case of Michelangelo, the fullest statement of
Man-
had been made. CelAutobiografjhy does not so much show us
nerist style in sculpture that
lini's
view of
his age as his superbly vain
significant
about
lades
documentation
is
his patrons the rulers,
meant eventhing
A
brilliant
of the
it;
its
most
artist's feeling
whose precious acco-
to him.
short-lived
pupil
of Tribolo's,
Pierino da Vinci (docs. '546-1553), was the only
sculptor of this group to specialize in reliefs, which
and subtle. His few statues in
round have a similar surface quality, giving
them an unequaled suave grace. Pierino in some
are low, luminous,
the
ways suggests the average tendency of the group,
like
tal
Tribolo more fluid in action than the ornamenCellini, like Cellini
more formally patterned
than the traditional Tribolo.
But the sensitive
handling with which he evoked a gently breathing
life is a
271.
personal observation.
Benvenuto CtLLiM.
I345-54Bronze, height 18'
Perifus.
Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence
216
noI.ORPLATR
S.
CoRRfGCIO. IV
;j;j.
Giovanni Evangclisia, Parma
I
of St. John
the Evangelist.
1
320
24.
Dome
frt'sco.
axes 3 '8" x ^8';
1
COLORPLATE
34.
Jacopo Pontor.mo.
Etilombmenl. 1525-28. Panel, lo's" x 6'4". S. Felicita. Florence
COLORPLATE
35.
RoSSO FlORFNTlN
Uffizi (JalUrv. Florence-
.\l<'\f\
Dtji-ndino
tfu-
Daughters of Jethro. 0.15-24. Canvas. 63"
4*1
COLORPLATE
36.
Agxolo Broxzino.
Veniii
Disarming Cupid, c.1524. Panel, 6i"X57". National Gallery,
London
Bronzino and His Contemporaries
29-
government otcuned
in
the emperor declared the Medici
its
In 1530 the last change of
when
Florence,
dukes. Their transformation from politically influ-
which was
ential bankers seems typical of this epoch,
turning from commercial and committee poiver to
(as with the Habsburg emperors),
on the executive (the Tudors in Eng-
hereditary rule
greater focus
land),
and greater centralization
(Spain).
When,
in
an apparent parallel, Florentine painting aban-
dons the rationalistic and humanistic Renaissance
traditions, Bronzino is its instrument. .\s a devoted
pupil of Pontormo, he follows the style of his Dejiosition at
first
gious works.
(see rolorplate
The
further from reality
effect of pressing
;f4),
and always
in reli-
slick cylindrical figures are
and
even
gravity; they have lost the
toward a goal that was conveyed by
Pontormo's throbbing outlines and twisted poses,
are now unmovingly suspended in a cool light.
One might conceive of this as a Mannerist way of
reacting to the original Mannerists, who may now
and
be regarded as the natural and given; in one sense
is
it
twice as Manneristic, adding chill to the old artitension, but in another sense it can be read as
doubling back, negating Pontormo's negation of
ficial
a
harmony and aniving somewhere near
grandeur of Fra Bartolommeo.
The
the passive
exception to
2-2.
.^O.NOLO BrO.NZI.NO.
Eleonora of Toltdo and Her Son.
1
553-55.
Panel, 45" x 37". Uffizi Gallery, Florence
such a view would be in a small group of allegories
such as Vetius Disarming Cu/iid, whose cold eroticism still has a witty involvement like Parmigianino's
36).
and
a tight
weave of
But Bronzino and
ested in portraits,
its
own
(colorplate
his patrons are chiefly inter-
where he
is
a great inventor. First
he paints rich impassive citizens clad in black, in
the gray courts of their palaces, precise
in line.
His later
result, in
Duchess Eleonora
trait
The
such a masterpiece as the
272),
(fig.
and complex
owes much
to the p>or-
sculptures on Michelangelo's Medici tombs.
face
is
a
mask
that cannot
move, and the three-
quarter length emphasizes the opulent costume, so
exactly rendered that
it
Hence the duchess we
c
could be used
see
is
not a
as a pattern.
woman
with a
haracter, as in earlier Renaissance portraits, but an
embodiment
of royal status, as she
formal reception. This
is
would
sit at
a
the state portrait which
over Europe from this date on, most
fa-
mously in those of Queen Elizabeth of England.
Its
appears
all
antirealism
is
intentional, the availability of
nerist artificiality was a lucky aid to
Bronzino
it
it,
Man-
and
found the master who perfected
it
in
as a
vehicle.
When
the
duke turned Florence's old
city hall
into his family palace, Giorgio \'asari (1511-1574)
frescoed the ceilings (from 1555) to record the
dici family glory.
sions,
Me-
Each ceiling has elaborate subdivi-
and the scenes mix
careful historical portraits
with newly devised allegories. Such organized learnedness
is
suitable to the artist most famous for hav-
ing written the lives of his predecessors, the great
artists
(mainly the Florentines) from Giotto on. Lat-
221
273
Francesco Salviati. Triumph ofCamillus. Fresco, i3'io"x I9'4" Sala deirUdienza,
Palazzo V'ecchio, Florence
er
he crowned his career by painting the inside of
Brunelleschi's
Cathedral cupola, greatest monu-
ment of the Florentine past. His painting style, wiry
glittering, and favoring translucent reds in
and
is
in
ing spatial breadth.
toned down by academic knowl-
rative media,
and
1503) practiced a similar style with a fresher paint-
touch, without the overtones of an archivist and
entrepreneur so basic to
all
Vasari did. Living
much
used
making figures move
heavy rhythmic processions, and even establishparade
aeology. His fellow pupil Francesco Salviati (1510-
222
Salviati, like the other painters there,
for tapestries,
edge of Bandinelli and of Giulio Romano's arch-
er's
Rome,
the ideas of the later Raphael,
willful
careful curves, derives
Mannerism but
from Rosso 's loose and
in
He was an
floats,
ingenious designer
and other similar deco-
so evolved his inature style, best
seen in his wall frescoes in the city hall of Florence
(fig.
273).
Space has vanished, shiny white and
pink surfaces, robes and horse trappings, enclose
us,
modeling
re-
and only an ingrained volume
calls
Florentine paititing.
in the
Moretto and Venetian Painters
of His Generation
30.
While Mannerism matured and became
in central Italy, Titian
tleties
of the
life
was
still
a
of the body in light
—
in
formula
new
Egypt and her ladies by the riverside
were
a
Venice the
with
all
Renaissance had not run down. Painters a generation
younger than Titian were unable
Titianesque painting,
from the choice of objects
to try any-
lights,
tion of living.
Bordone (1500-1571) starts in Titian's Assumplinn
producing many Holy Families that sit heavily
ritories
on the
comparable
to the textures
and shifting
gratifica-
mainland
only Moretto (docs. I5i6-d.i554)
to Lotto,
.\s
richness extends
In the market towns in Venice's
Big brilliant people lean diagonally
glass.
its
which directly evoke the sensuous
thing else than refined variations on him. Paris
style,
as if the event
luxurious picnic with velvets and dwarfs.
sub-
finding
Romanino, and other
is
ter-
now
talents
of wrinkled velvets and
own generation. .Moretto was a pupil
of Romanino in Brescia, and his first commission
produces saints who are ambling horsemen, gazing
Venetian record
out from under their big hats as his teacher's do,
of a traditional civic ceremony, as in Gentile Bellini,
or those of his teacher's friend Altobello Melone.
toward each other, their glinting red robes sinking
into the
downy
Receiving the
green. His masterpiece, the
Ri)ig,'''* full
slithering brush strokes,
is
a typical
in Titian's
Doge
pompous pride. Later,
bv Giulio Romano's work in Mantua. Par-
stabilizing traditions with
But the raw naturalistic thrust has been subdued,
attracted
and classical niches isolate figures in cool air. .\s
Moretto moves farther from his sources he grows
closer to Raphael, whose work he probably only
is
painted Raphaelesque erotic myths, with frizzled
blonde
They come close to .Mannerism, but
when it had reached Venice in
Bonifazio Veronese (1487-1553), more
girls.
knew through prints. Hence the paintings have a
somewhat linear and slow dryness, the price of the
classical clarity which he evidently was looking for
and could not find nearer home. By 1530, through
not until about 1550
other ways.
routine than
this, for years
government
offices,
to those
painted saints to decorate
donated by the citizens elected
ceremonial posts. His masterpiece, the
ing of Moses
274.
.t.
i
(fig.
gradual self-revision. Moretto had reached success
Fiiui-
274), presents the princess of
Bonifazio \'eronese. Finding 0/ Mosts. Canvas,
1
1'^"
in a beautiful
\
j'S". Brera.
Milan
and
sure,
if
limited, art. of broadly
painted standing figures, large and simple, barely
moving, dusky or
is
somewhat
fig.
like
silver in tone
(fig.
275).
The effect
Savoldos big detached figures
247), but apparently
Moretto had
to use his
(see
own
route to arrive at this because Saxoldo's old-fash-
ioned dualism of figure and space was not acceptable
to
him. Using Raphael, Moretto amends Savoldos
heavy-limbed humble shepherds into judicial observers with a classicizing majesty, a society without
up
fashion but with good manners, and sets
effective
non-Titianesque painting of
this time. It benefits
this
the only
region at
ftom belonging, genuinely
this case, to a "Brescian school," since the
in
harinony
of gray air and unaggressive figures harks back to
Foppa. Moretto was always in danger of slipping
back into more literal and complicated Raphaelism.
but his purest paintings, idyllic and contemplative,
were important
younger painters
to
in challenging
Titian directlv.
-'75.
.^LEssANDRO Moretto.
The Virgin Appiaring
to
a
Shtphrd Boy.
1533. Canvas, y'S-^S''""Sanctuary. Paitone (near Brescia)
31.
The
Mannerist Painters in North
stage was set for a Mannerist penetration of
north
Italy
when Giulio Romano painted
his ar
and erotic exercises in the Raphael tradition in the Mantuan duke's Palazzo del Te. The
invasion was complete when Parniigianino came
back from Rome.
chaeological
Primaticcio (1504-1570) surted by assisting
Giulio in Mantua, making stucco ceilingornaments.
From this obscurity he was lifted by an invitation
from Francis
1
of France to
come
to
Fontainebleau,
Italy
ings to explain his
minor way,
ticcio
is
to Rosso;
to
in France. In a
Pontormo
so Prima-
he removes the important factor
ornament, courtly and sophisticated. Series of amusing Greek myths, framed in ovals, are played by tall,
beautifully translucent people, formed by crisply
undulating contours that progress in clear round
drawing
Spencerian script
like
(fig.
276).
These
formulas are mechanically repeated by later paintFontainebleau, but Primaticcio,
ers at
under Rosso, whose work
he must have found very congenial, and then in
charge. The remodelings of the palace have de-
stucco reliefs
forty years, first
is
of tension, turning the artificial forms into frozen
perhaps recommended by Giulio in place of himself.
He stayed
huge influence
Bronzino
as
all his life,
and successors
in
found
who made
brilliant assistants
some young French sculptors
(see
stroyed his paintings, quite aside from the loss of his
PP- 394-97)Lelio Orsi (docs. 1536-4.1587), a very limited
masquerade costumes, and we have only the draw-
but distinctive
224
artist,
began too with
a
bow to Giulio
was to Correggio; he explored his black night effects
and
especially his rippling edges of cloth. In Correg-
gio these shapes area secondary result of his soft
tering motion, but Orsi's tiny pKjlished panels
them
central, altering Ojrreggio's
downiness
wildly inappropriate way by jelling
it
flut-
make
in a
into a kind
of modeling-clay texture. This curious conceit creates
an ambiguity between agitation and frozen
ty that recalls
fixi-
the local popular tradition of realistic
sculpture groups,
and
gives Orsi an unmistakable
trademark, like eccentric small talents of other epochs up to Dali.
.Andrea .Schiavone (docs.
1547-156^) immi-
grated honi the Balkans to Venice and completely
learned Titian's technique
—the
zest
with which the
brush pulls in the hand, arid the way translucent
oil-
diluted pigments on a white opaque base suggest
Francesco Primaticcio, with
assistants. Long Gallerv', detail of
stucco sculpture and paintings.
276.
life
in colored light. Like
many
painters in \'enice
he was interested in paint and in the reality of ob-
Palace, Fontainebieau.
composition and
Height of frieze
'1'^"
served phenomena, but
of oval painting
4'
design. So, like Titian, he casually borrowed these
little in
He
elsewhere, chiefly from Parmigianino's etchings.
also
produced
his
own,
less
technically sure but
warmer. Most of all he liked Parmigianino's verv
tall
undulating bodies(fig. 277). He changes
their Mannerist, linear module to something like a
figures with
very
Romano. He
area
who
is
the only .Mannerist in the
is
Parma
not a routine follower of Parmigianino.
His solution was to retreat to a
modern
wide brush
stroke, liquidly
ing from head to foot.
It is
and sinuously mov-
boneless but livelv and
glowing. Schiavone's achievement
is
minor, appar-
source, a
ently because, like Orsi's, his technical expression
pattern by which a minor artist often can retain his
was in a narrow range, a problem recurrent when,
character in the orbit of a major one. Orsi's appeal
as in
277.
less
Andrea Schiavone.
Adoration of the Xtagi.
Canva.s. 6'i
"
^
y'i".
Ambrosiana
Mannerism, a formula of stvle
is
important.
32.
Titian's Later Years
278. Titian. Venus of i'rbino. 1538. Canvas, 7'3"x8'9". Uffizi Gallery, Florence
While painting more
fifty
portraits than ever, Titian at
was finishing the twenty-five-foot-long Praenla-
lion of Ike J'irgiu for a convent of
(
1534-38). ^5
Yhe more
nuns
in
Venice
he became involved with
in-
ternational powers the longer he took to deliver his
local
commissions, and perhaps they have the more
visual richness for that.
This one,
filling the side
wall of a room, shows the girl in profile as she climbs
the steps, and makes the whole scene a frieze of gently
breathing people and shiny columns in veined
marble, that we can never see
all at
once.
of Vrbiyw was called "the nude" by
duke of Urbino's son
226
(fig.
278).
It is
The Venus
she looks
at
us with the frank model's gaze that
Manet repeated
centuries later, ^^
and
far
her, near a bit of clear sky, servants roll
sleeves;
ity
one burrows
of the courtesan's
in a chest.
life is
behind
up
The nonformal
their
real-
tacked on to a standard
immobile icon of the goddess. There
Giorgione than of Giovanni Bellini
is
less
here of
(see p. 138): the
easy acceptance of the solid conventional thematic
image, the "second theme" footnoted behind, the
unfaltering opticality.
.After
1540 another pendulum swing produced
owner, the
a third period of very energetic scenes. In a series of
a direct vision:
ceiling paintings of Biblical fights, '^ the foreshort-
its
ening makes Abel's body and Goliath's head seem
about to tumble out
The huge
majestic group portrait of the
Vendramin family
wrestlers in the
kneeling before their prized relic has a similar loose
sky appear to be inspired bv a Michelangelo project
design and sparkling surfaces of ermine, gold, and
for a Samso)!
tenseness
is
at us.
group. But any .Mannerist effect of
excluded by the
full resolution
of all the
movements, and their absorption in the stormy deep
sky. Even portraits grow vehement, like Pope Paul
and His Grandions (1546; fig. 279). painted on a
trip to Rome, where Titian was lionized. It is an
astonishing document, the aged fxjpe bent double,
with claw hands, one grandson passive in a corner
III
like a gray
cally.
eminence, the other bowing sycophanti-
But instead of being incredibly
satiric, it is
simply Titian's almost naive unrevised celebration
of the world as seen through
its
physical motion.
The
This culminated when Titian traveled to
Augsburg to the one patron who impressed him.
Emperor Charles V, the most powerful man on earth.
fire.'*
He
painted him (1548) on horseback as a victor in
bow to the system of the
battle,'* Titian's nearest
state portrait.
las,
He
exploits
it
as
he does other formu-
but the painting lives in the horse's nervous paw-
ing and the rider's watchful control,
all
absorbed
in
tremulous landscape.
For one of Poj>e Paul
Ill's
grandsons Titian
painted (1545) another nude, Daiiae,^" the beauty
to whom Zeus, in the myth, flies down magicallv
279.
TrriAN.
Popt Paul III and
His Grandsons.
1
546.
Canvas, G'lo" x 5'8'.
Museo Nazionalc
di
Capodimontc. Naples
22';
transformed as a shower of gold. For the Habsburgs
painted liveliness of the surfaces. Paint seems to eat
he later repeated the same comjxjsition
280),
up space again
lean-
(fig.
replacing the cupid with an old
(fig.
woman who
is
ing forward trying to catch the gold in her apron
281),
delay.
in the
done
The
God
the base to
A
columns. Since
sensual myth, having as
its
shining metal flying through
perfect Titian subject. Erotic
central motif bits of
must surely be the
myth continues in the
air,
Rape of EiiTOpa (1559-62)," showing the girl
sprawled on the back of the agreeable white animal
in
is
one lower corner of the painting, while the
full
rest
of choppy water and streaky sky, and far back
the minute figures of Europa's friends are waving.
The
paint surface
is
used to
set
up
the stretch of
space and the force of drama, but in a loose, incrediblv asymmetrical
280.
228
way
that seems to
emphasize the
Titian. Danae. 1554 Canvas. 50" x 70".
The
little
but the
with a ten-year
canvas relates the yearning saint at
tall
while Dana'e watches, unposed, with her knees up.
Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence
for a friend in X'enice
at the
this
fire
is
top through the lines of
a night scene,
that
burns the
we
tall
actually see
saint's
bodv, the
divine apparition at the top, and the pwlished col-
umns between
like
glowing harp
Having discarded
strings.
and form and comfxjsition, in the 1560s Titian seems to give up color,
leaving a flickering glow of varnish brown. Like
Donatello, he is working in an old-age style, not trying to satisfy any
knowing he can
allusion, like
Prado. Madrid
line
demands
get his
own
for finish or elaboration,
effect
with just the right
an old singer who retains perfect
art.
A few brightly lit portraits and mythologies appear,
but most of the late works are religious, with very
plain elementary compositions. Christ Crowned
with r horns (colorplaie 37) reuses a design from the
violent forties but dabs at it with a technique like
an Impressionist's in 1870. and with deep human
expressiveness. The dull copper glints and pasty
swipes convey the relationships of ourselves, the
wounded Christ, and those who poke at him. The
drama
it
is still
of body movement, but, like the style,
its implied
has been reduced to a suggestion, while
meaning has grown.
.\t
ninety Titian was remote
from contemporary painting styles, and these last
works of his were picked up only by Baroque and
nineteenth-century painters after the mass of artists
had gradually worked around to
T1TIA.V.
281.
Marlyrdom of Si. Lawrence.
Canvas, I4'9"x9'2".
It-suit
Venetian sculpture and architecture continued to be
very secondary, as in the earlv Renaissance (but not
its
1
555.
Church, V'enice
Falconetto, Sanmicheli, Jacopo Sansovino
33-
in the
this point.
Middle
own
.Ages). ,\rchitecture
strong attitude,
which
is
develops, though,
scenographic, based
on lively fagades. The death of Mauro Coducci
marked a break, and after an interval the first modern architecture is by Gianmaria Falconetto (docs.
1472-1533). He had been a minor painter, trained
in perspective tricks by Melozzo da Forli, and had
lived in
Rome, where he had been entranced by the
and others. When
fussy archaeology of Pinturicchio
at fifty
he started to build, he was encouraged bv and
for a remarkable patron,
was perhaps the executant
the patrician philosophical writer .Mvise Cxjrnaro in
Padua. For him he built (1524) a garden house and
a concert room, called
Roman
Odeon,
reflecting the
pleasure pavilions like the
(see p. 179).
The
X'illa
fa<,ades are thinly linear
new
Madama
and orna-
229
mental, with pilaster
strips,
and half columns are the
only three-dimensional element.
with four niches
copy ancient
An octagonal room
adorned with thin stuccoes that
is
Rome
as neatly as
any in Regency Eng-
land. Falconetto also built city gates in
Padua with
the same light neatness, as of a stage backdrop.
The
Verona by Michele San-
gates built in
micheli (1484-1559) are very different.*^ His beginnings as a stonemason in
Lombardy were reinforced
by working for the younger Antonio da Sangallo in
Rome, and
a
long career
group of town houses
as a military engineer. Set-
he soon built an impressive
tling then in Verona,
(fig.
282); like
Lombard
stone
workers before him, he adopted the available
lo's
skill
MiCHELE SaNMICHELI.
61'
X
Sangallo's
still
study of ancient ruins. Sanmicheli's whole
typified
122'
reflect
zest.
floor (see figs.
282.
Fa9ade, Palazzo Bevilacqua, Verona. 1530.
style
and
They
SangalMint — "noble story" over rough-hewn ground
more
223,285) —and
vocabulary with
more
by the sharp fluting of
Roman
literally
tect of the
and
tight
his
is
than that of any other archi-
"Renaissance of Antiquity." But
purist;
style,
columns,
it is
not
confident construction, with
its
sweeping and majestic plain forms, shows the mas-
That classical forms are only
shown by the retention of the traditional Venetian ground plan, with a series of
courtyards from front to back. He is more simply
tery of a familiar meter.
a vocabulary
is
scenographic in smaller works like Verona's Cathedral choir screen
(fig.
283), a
pure grand
circle of
smoothly polished columns, in several wall tombs
whose framing columns underline
satisfving
two
riiey typify his
gates,
their firm
and
proportions, and in his imposing citv
interests,
conspicuous
display and military strength.
At the same time Jacopo Sansovino,
from the Sack of Rome, settled
a refugee
in Venice. Earlier
he had done monumental sculpture and small archi-
now
tectural jobs;
His
283.
MicHELE SaNMICHELI. Choir
Cathedral, Verona. 1534. Height
radius 19'
Screen
19',
the proportions were reversed.
later sculptures,
when
when
large,
tend to repeat, and
small, to function as building accents.
He had
not planned to stay in Venice, but was courted by
citizens
who had no one
plays they wanted.
to design the splendid dis-
Soon he was
a fixture,
the Titian circle, and the deviser of
much
one of
that
we
regard as typical in Venice. At the foot of the Bell
Tower
of Saint Mark's
viewing stand
fig.
284).
It
is
lie
placed a noblemen's
for processions (1537-40;
a wall
made
on
re-
right,
of three multicolored
marble arches, the piers marked by four bronze
statues.
230
The
interattion of architecture with sculp-
with
ture, sliuctuie
be called
pictorial,
may
cletoiaiioii,
since
it
in
its
tiiiity
depends on color
Mint (1537-45; fig- 285), around the
meant to be an imposing government
building but also a workshop for smiths, so it is visu-
action. His
corner, was
ally a different "class" of building,
w
ith
no sculpture
or color but enrii hed by the light and relief efTects
of
its
rough boulder construction throughout,
ancing the deep windows. Between the two
tion
and
1536;
a
on
in type
is
left, fig.
pedestrian
bal-
in loca-
the Library of Saint Mark's (from
284), a two-story fagade, the lower
arcade
that
Doges' Palace across from
it.
matches
the
Gothic
.Smooth half columns
bear the arches and roofs, but
all
nonbearing
sur-
even continuing above the roof
Between the deep inner shadows below
faces are sculptured,
in pinnacles.
and the blue sky above, the tapestry-like vibration
of the carved facade is a happy backdrop for the
promenades of the Venetians. Sansovino also cast
two sets of bronze relief panels for points of accent
inside .Saint Mark's,*' in which he adopts a Titianlike powerful
movement of
figures in
spaces; but later his sculpture
is
large airy
limited to design-
ing gilded stucco ceilings over the stairway of the
Doges' Palace. Like Titian, he works with a contin-
uing High Renaissance approach, evolving naturally
onward instead of reacting against
off as was done in Tuscany.
284.
it
and cutting
Jacopo Sansovino.
Loggetta and Library,
Piazza San Marco, Venice.
'537-40-
Width of Loggetta
of Library 274'8''
...^^//y/y777.
285.
Jacopo Sansovin
Fa9ade, Mint,
Venice. 1537-4.5
77' y 88'6"
48',
it
34-
Ammanati, Vignola
Banoloinmeo Ammanati's career
1592) illustrates the situation
tor-architect in
now
(1511-
profile
typical.
A
sculp-
the Sansovino pattern, he was a
pupil of Bandinelli in Florence but was
more
affect-
ed by Michelangelo and by the graceful mild Mannerism of the
'forties in
He would
Florence.
always
carve standing male nudes with Bandinelli's inflex-
but
ible squarish forms,
relaxed poise. For
his other figures attain a
tomb commissions he quickly
286.
evolved a suave formula: a meditative reclining
figure, softened
from shoulder
weights.
Its
and unified by drapery
B.\RTOLO-MMEO .^MM.^NATl,
on tomb of Cardinal del Monte. 1550-54
Marble, width of base j'^'.
Effigy,
that hangs
to knee, with a satisfying balance of
S. Pietro in
Montorio,
Rome
pose and broad gentleness of expression
are inspired by Michelangelo's Twilight, suggesting
that the period
different
in
saw that work
Ammanati's
first
large work, a
dinelli jealously prevented
and again
a
decade
tomb which Ban-
from being
Monte
286). In the interim he
had
in
plain slab, richly framed, used as the surface for
installed,*''
very fluid sculptural forms. This tranquil Manner-
tomb
ism brilliantly marks the bronzes of the Fountain of
later in his masterpiece, the
of Cardinal .\ntonio del
fig.
way surprisingly
in a
from the way we do. The formula appears
Rome
(1550-54;
assisted Sansovino,
Neptune in Florence (' 560-75), ^^ ^ ducal commiswhich he took over from Bandinelli; ironically,
sion
carving small figures to adorn his buildings, and
its
developed an architectural scheme which also flow-
anatomical
ers in the
287.
Del Monte tomb.
It
Bartolommeo A.MMANATI.
is
based on a very
Coiirtvard, Palazzo
Pitti,
colossal central figure
still
reflects Bandinelli's
Growing more involved
in architecture, he
style.
Florence. Begun 1558. Center wall
i
i8'y 131'
288, 289.
ViGNOLA and Ammanat
Plan and
fa<;ade. Villa Giulia,
Rome. 1350-55Length of plan 544';
facade by Vignola 54'6"
-
118'
GiACOMO Vignola.
290,291.
Plan and courtyard,
Begun 1559
width of plan about 260';
Villa Farnese, Caprarola.
Maximum
height of courtyard 62'6",
diameter 105'
de\ eloped a
in
it.
more strenuous and tomplex expression
no doubt stiinulated by
his
collaboration
back into a garden.
The courtyard between the
wings has rough boulder walls ("rustication") on
with the more experienced \'ignola. As the junior
all
partner in their project for Pope [ulins
disassembled into stripes that reveal normal col-
Rome
(1550-55;
mixing
fig.
2^^).
Ammanati
a pool, sculpture,
and
II
Is villa in
built a garden,
a deeply
shadowed
scieening niche. In Florence he then built for the
duke an addition
to the
Palazzo Pitti (1558-70;
new ducal
fig.
residence, the
287), wings extending
three sides, recalling Sansovinos Mini, but here
umns and
up the tenand raw disorder of Giulio
arches beneath, thus setting
sion of classical order
Romano's Mantuan villa (see fig. 267). .\inmanati
less witty and brainy than Giulio, but sensuously
is
richer in his heavy,
jumpy
textures. His
Pome Santa
233
Trinita (1557)*®
of bridges. Since
away
and
often called the most beautiful
ished 1554). This involves as well another constant
was a replacement for one washed
expressive quality of V'ignola's, the elastic pull of
is
it
in a flood,
it
made with
naturally was
as solid piers as possible,
and
a
roadway
as possible.
The
curve of
three arches; the refined ellipse
its
result
gnola-like idea, but to
is
as few
as
high
the wide, shallow, tensile
is
a \'i-
combine it with a suggestion
is unique and powerful.
of engineering necessity
Giacomo
X'ignola (1507-1573), a north Italian
who worked mainly
in
Rome,
is
rare in being an
and Sanmicheli
were the only ones in the preceding generation) and
surprising as one who had an original stylistic imagination. (It is probably significant that he had had
architect only (the younger Sangallo
training as a painter.) In his works the technical
and the
intellectual thus
doveuil
in a special way.
Unlike the older pure architects, he wrote a book,*''
it was se-
but unlike the older architectural books
verely practical,
editions.
He
and went through two hundred
started as a perspective draftsman
typical juncture of the technical
—
for Primaticcio's paintings at
Fontainebleau. His
own building trademark
fairly
is
a
thick pilasters articulating the
walls, neither flattened pilasters like Peruzzi's
nor
heavy half columns like Sangallo's, but suggesting
structure
is
and
its
Michelangelo.
(Peruzzi had
rational comprehension;
He
built the
first
its
source
oval churches
drawn some, using ancient Roman
sources), bracketing the favorite concept of the circle
as ideal
services.
oval
form with the practical needs of church
He does it by stretching the circle into an
dome,
as at Sant'.\ndrea in \'ia
Flaminia
first
along walls and through spaces. In his
important work, Palazzo Bocchi in Bologna
(1545), a heavy rusticated door contrasts with a
making
wall surface,
(fin-
flat
centripetal; the motifs are
it
the same copies from Giulio
Romano,
Sangallo,
and
Peruzzi that Peruzzi's pupil Serlio presented in his
architectural handbook,** but here they have unity
and power. In Rome, at Julius II Is villa (figs. 288,
289), the door with deep narrow niches squeezed
between extruded rusticated ftames is a knot that
pulls the wall's pilaster forms to
itself.
For his great
patrons, the Farnese family, he remodeled a fort of
Sangallo's into the N'illa Caprarola (from 1559;
290, 291).
had been
It
but odd in a
villa;
made
he
normal
a pentagon,
figs.
in a fort
the pentagonal central
court a circle and in front added a double curved
These
half oval.
staircase, a
shape allude to the
softenings of
lively
villa quality.
He
designed his
greatest interior for the Jesuit church in
and inteLectual
doing backgrounds
network of
his lines
key commission at the end of his
Farnese (from 1568;
fig.
292).
life
The
Rome,
a
from Cardinal
single nave un-
der a vault (stipulated by the patron) reflects Alberti's Sant'.\ndrea in
Mantua
(see
tion: the
nave seems
out distraction.
wrong,
To
since, partly
Jesuit order,
it
motion
it
toward the
altar with-
Mannerist
is
probably
through the quick spread of the
make concentrated weight and
familiar
vehicles
expression.
292.
But
centraliza-
was very influential in the Baroque
age and helped to
powerful
to rush
call this
105).
fig.
and
uses these elements for pulling lines
GucOMO
X'iG.NOLA. Interior,
U Ge^u. Rome.
Height of nave 95', width 55'
of Baroque
Palladio
35-
Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) wasmuchlikeVignola
in age and other ways. Until he was thirty he was a
modest stonecarver in provincial V'icenza, west of
Venice, and he did his first major buildings at forty.
Like Falconetto. he was trained by a nobleman interested in antiquities. .\s craftsmanship and intellect
mix
mix
and archaeology
in Vignola, craftsmanship
in Palladio, along with a Venetian tradition of
stage scenery. His
first
buildings were rural seats
owners, cheaplv done in brick and
for small estate
stucco without ornament, emphasizing the Venetian
big central entrance and syinmeirical windows. In
the
with
1550S,
grow into
front
sophistication,
Palladio's
large villas with side wings
porches which allude to
These units are
they
and columned
Roman
temples.
tied together three-dimensionally
by arithmetical proportions of height, v.idth, and
length, for which he used a half-dozen formulas.
were year-round dwellings, unlike the
and smaller weekend retreats near Rome
and Florence. One exceptional weekend house by
Palladio is the Villa Rotonda (figs. 293, 294), a
These
villas
fancier
domed box on
a rise with four identical temple
fronts, a jewel-like object to look at (like
Bramante's
fame
as a perfect
Tempietto, with which
it
shares
its
and to look out from.
Palladio's fame began when he won the job of
monumentalizing the X'icenza market hall (model
1546), turning it into a Basilica by wrapping a por-
object; see
fig.
189)
around it. This is a two-story colonnade, rich in
rhythm and imitating Sansovino's Library in the
pictorial play of light, but not depending on sculptico
ture.
He
then built town houses in a
Palazzo Chiericati
—tackling
in Vignola's oval
church
a
siinilar vein;
problem
(see p. 234)
like the
one
—blends two
traditions of houses, the important central entrance
and the covered pedestrian walk running in front
(fig. 295). The covered walk projects in the center;
above, the central block is left hanging over it, but
the unbalance
is
absorbed in the active N'enetian
luminism of the fa{,ade. If the irresolution
tional,
it
.^SDREA Palladio.
Exterior and plan,
Rotonda. near Vicenza.
75', main blocks 80' square
woodcut plan from Scamozzi, Idea
N'illa
Height
dtWarthittltuTa unittfioU, Venice, 161;
inten-
suggests MaiHierism; that label applies
better to Palazzo \'almarana (1566;
certainly
is
293, 294.
is
fig.
296),
which
playing games with the purposes of
its
235
Andrea Palladio. Facade,
295-
Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza. Begun 1531.
58'
X
138'
296.
Andrea Palladio.
Fa9ade, Palazzo V'almarana,
Vicenza. 1566. 46' x yg'B"
elements, like Michelangelo's Laurentian Library.
The
open instead of being
and windows are framed by walls
may or may not be meant as pilasters. But this
sides are left frayingly
firmly framed,
that
is
a technician's gentle
game with
not a sharp twist of irony.
The
his
own
materials,
later palaces grow-
ever more pictorial, with imaginative dynamism in
their half
columns and carvings, and grow
beyond the
in scale
resources, so that they
clients'
not finished. Palladio's fame rested on his
especially the early ones,
were
villas,
which he publicized from
book with woodcut
his small city in a successful
illustrations.**
The
reproductions in this
conveyed their plain shapes and
medium
fine proportions,
inviting imitation in distant countries
and times
by cultivated readers interested in building, such
as
Thomas
In Palladio's latest years his ambitious mathe-
time.
churches, to
They
and scenic effects are clearwhich he turned only at this
are mainly in Venice. In his learned
and practical way he solved the much-considered
problem of how to put a classical front on a church
that has a high central nave and lower aisles: the
236
is
to build
two temple
fionts,
narrow and the other wide and low,
the
first
(figs.
297, 298).
The
one
as if
tall
and
behind
scenic effects appear
further in the white plain interiors enriched by
and spatial sequences, where all paintings
and sculpture are hidden in niches. Arcades partially screen naves from crossings and choirs, which
are distinct in their visible uses but draw the eye
soft light
through the screens; the whole has a grand scale
and
Palladio's unassertive mastery of three-dimen-
sional proportions. Since geometric sensitivity un-
[efierson.
matical, archaeological,
est in
answer
derlies
liis
sensuous surfaces,
as in the great X'enetian
musicians of this time, he can
move among building
and from spare to elaborate forms. .And thus
he is the only match for the great X'enetian painters
then at work, Tintoretto and X'eronese, and a stimutypes
lus in surprisingly
centuries.
many ways
to architects of later
COLORPLATE
37.
8'6" x s'l
Til IAN. ChrisI Crownrd with Thorns, c.1570. Canvas.
1".
Altc Pinakothck,
Munich
coi-ORPLATE 38.
Jacopo Tintoretto.
Miraclf oj the Slave. 1548. Canvas, I3'8" x ly'i
i
".
Accademia, Vc
COLORPLATE
39.
Paolo VERONESE. The
Ceiling, S. Sebasliano,
Venice
Coronation of Esther. 1555-58.
Canvas. I3'i"x I2'2"
FhDhKli.o
Bar.j(,(
1
In,
\u
.
53"
-
41
".
The Prado, Madrid
Andrea Palladio. Facade,
297
Giorgio Maggiore, Venice.
S.
Begun 1556. I05'x88'6"
Andrea Palladio.
298.
Plan,
Giorgio Maggiore, Venice.
Begun 1556. Width 157', length 272'
S.
Tintoretto
36.
Around
1545,
when Titian began
to
work almost
young
entirely for his gieat international clients,
Venetian painters
for the first
time in several gen-
erations had an opportunity for independent careers.
Tintoretto (1518-1594) worked steadily for the local government and confraternities, like Carpaccio
before him, but always remained anxious.
famous, he would
still
When
take small fees and modify
meet competition, even imitating youngVeronese and Palma Giovane. His
famous sketchiness, complained of by Titian's connoisseur friends, is surely connected with his desire
his style to
er artists like
to
do
as
much
His
first
great success (154H) was
(colorplate 38).
asceneof
tlie
Sunny and shining in the
it is new in the fig-
established Venetian language,
ures,
which are
clearly
They
are foreshortened, backwards, on
and understandably more conservative
in solid modeling than Titian's. This to be sure is
prepared by Titian's recent experiments and by
diagonals,
Tintoretto's
of Michelangelo's
awareness
figure
movement; Sairsovino had already conjoined those
strands in his bronze reliefs (see p. 231).
fulalion of the Virgin
(fig.
299)
is
The
Pre.\-
also offered as a
sensational challenge to Titian's handling of the
theme
as a lateral frieze.
Tintoretto makes
recession into pyramidal depth, the
because the chief figure, the
more
it
pure
striking
little girl, is at
the far
side at the top of the stairs; then he invents devices
as possible.
saint fleeing a slave, for the Confraternity of Saint
Mark
virtuosity.
meant
to startle
by their
to
keep
cern.
her, despite all that, the center of
These
effortful
our con-
paradoxes seem Mannerist,
but are resolved in the natural dappling of light
and
color, in
ways parallel
Chiericatiof the same
to
moment
Palladio's
(see
fig.
295).
Palazzo
A
mas-
241
299-
Jacopo Tintoretto.
The Presentation of the
Can\as,
S.
terpiece of tricker>' eased by light
is
Sinanna and
Maria
in diagonal perspective contrasts
14'
x
Virgin.
is'g".
dell'Orto. Venice
with diagonally
and ropes pulling against them. The
the Elders,^" where the elders poke their heads
falling forms
around the two ends of
schematism of figure placement that he seems
hedge.
The hedge
a steeply foreshortened
covered with roses, and Su-
is
sanna's schematic diagonal pose
is
absorbed in the
water reflections. Such a witty nude
toretto,
proach
who
rare for Tin-
and
usually takes a simple
to his usually
The
is
direct ap-
sculptural figure plays a lesser role in
packed into
a
with closely grouped
242
(see
the Florentine
fig.
98),
Manner-
of linear forces in space,
figures,
is
using the Venetian
tering tendencies. This style dominates the
for the
first
"Scuola" or Confi'aternity
of San Rocco, with which he eventually arranged
an annual
salary.
before Filate
The huge
them an immense empty
Mark (1562-
hall or portico
(fig.
Crucifixion (1565-67)
300) the Pontormo-like Christ,
emaciated, and intense,
tall,
is
part of a
rhythm of
spaced columns. Some of the paintings replace
architectural patterns by a stormy sky,
now
tra-
ditional in Venice; the Crucifixion at San Cassiano
(1568) puts
lialf
all
the diagonal crosses in the right
and storm clouds
in the left.
In the 1570S Tintoretto was able to let his rich
also conspicuous
in the three later Miracles of Sainl
64);^- in
is
either by silhouettes or light patches. In Christ
Padua by Donatello
who was being revived by
ists. The firm construction
charged thrusts, but he
controls of pervasive air to correct the earlier splin-
continuous rhythmic
columns suggests that Tintoretto had looked
at the reliefs in
to
his breathless, fervent athletes
organizes the crowds in triangular clusters, bordered
group of tied diagonals, marked by fjools of color
and shadow and reduced emphasis on particular
hues. The contrast of the driven crowd and the
vertical
him push
Thecrowd
Healiiigal the Pool oj Belhesda (1559).^'
is
in
lets
group of many
simple themes.
Tintoretto's maturity, a phase introduced by the
of bodies
need
air
dominate and the schematic patterns
relax, so
that the figure groups can turn in softer curves; in
the big upper
room
Temjitalion oj
ClirisI, for all its
nal blocks of figures,
vegetation
and
at
San Rocco (1577-81) the
confronting diago-
drowns them
world of
in a
These sketchy canvases are
ruins.
contemporary with more smoothly finished mythologies for the Doges' Palace (1578), similar in gentlv
revising the diagonal formula.
series at
The
.New
Tesument
San Rocco (1583-87) extends this tendency
Mary of
further, especially the Saint
in her striped landscape,
and
Egyfil sitting
leads to the final
for San Giorgio Magwhere complete tonal
triumph, the huge paintings
giore (1592-94;
fig.
301).
unity brackets the crowd
life.
Like .Andrea del Sarto
responding to Leonardo, Tintoretto responds
to
Titian by constant preoccupation with problems of
figure composition, even in drawings.
toretto, a greater artist
back to nature and
its
But
in
Tin-
than Andrea, the references
resources are always strongly
maintained.
300.
Jacopo Tintoretto
Christ befoTt Pilate. 1566.
Canvas,
18'
x
I3'6".
Scuola di San Rocco, V'enice
301.
Jacopo Tintoretto.
iainting
ft-agmentary ways, often through prints.
.\fter his early
paintings his figures
pause in detachment like a film
move
still (fig.
little,
304).
which
are also absorbed into his brushwork,
fresh,
luminous, and brilliant as in
Venetians. His surface
is
bright and
drawing, but shinier and pastier,
dabs.
It
rejects not only Titian's
brushed energy of the
figures,
all
is
the great
fat as
full
but
They
a crayon
of streaks or
and Tintoretto's
but also \'eronese's
constructions of beautiful people, and celebrates
only the beautiful visible
Such detachment,
would today produce
field.
related to his remoteness,
pure painting, but in him was expressible through
subjects
considered
secondary',
either
lowolish to
Indeed, his eager exploration of avail-
resembles Cellini
his sources.
because both had
able methods, as well as his habit of doing revised
His large bronze group
of l\\e Beheading ofJohn the Baptist (1571; fig. 314)
is most notable for the fashionable Salome, leaning
make it hard to trace his career. Still
more suggestive is the Bacchus,^^ his bow in his
first big work in Florence to the older Renaissance
her small liead to one side. So does the upper figure
tradition represented by Sansovino's.
been trained
of
as goldsmitlis.
Honor Conquering
Deceit, ^'^ an elegantly twined
versions,
With balanced rhythms and
\ersion of Michelangelo's I'lilory which had already
sion of the local Mannerist system
been imitated by .\mmanati, Cellini, and Pierino
naturalism,
da Vinci. All these sculptors had died or lessened
about 1575, when Giambologna
the leading sculptor of the Medici and
their activity by
emerged
of
as
Italy.
Giovanni Bologna (1529-1608) was born and
trained on the French-Flemish border, and was
returning from an ordinary tour of Italy
was induced to stay in Florence.
first
when he
No doubt what
attracted patrons there was his virtuosity; he
bubbled over with
facility. It
appears in the fantastic
naturalism of small works, like the bronze sketch of
a turkey walking,
314.
(fig.
ViNCENZo Danti.
Behiading of John
ihi Baptist
above South Doon). 1571.
Bronze, height
8'.
Baptistery, Florence
which
reflect his
Flemish
taste
and
his
Flemish
Giambologna's mature works bring
Mannerism back
Thus
a remarkable fu-
to life in a
his first large
newly powerful way.
work, the Neptune fountain in
Bologna (1563-67; made
after losing
out to .Am-
one in Florence),'""
manati in competing
for the
formal and
placement, yet the figure has
strict in
is
the air of a big bear waking and growling. His
famous Rape of the Sahuie Woman (1579-83; fig.
316a, b) is a tower of twined figures simpler and
truer than the pose
would seem
to permit,
and
Hercules and the Centaur (from 1594),"" even more
subtly, holds
its
bursting stress in equip>oise in a way
that signals the birth of the
Baroque rather than
late
Mannerism. In
(1570;
fig.
his fountain statue of the
317), a
Apemiine
mountain god (because streams
are born from mountains), he covers the colossal
crouching figure with rubble stalactites under which
mountain crawls
the personified
is
Giambologna who makes
it
an
like Caliban;
abstracted fantasy has stimulated elemental
life.
seem normal
It
that
generals or rulers put their statues on horseback in
city squares; in
continued in
(Since
Florence he started a series that was
Paris,
Donatello's
with Henri IV, and in Madrid.
and
continuous.)
bologna
as
The
Sabine
one of those
a
\'eiTocchio's,
before, there had been none, but
now
Woman
artists
century
they became
marks Giam-
who have
created an
image more famous than themselves, an anonymous
item of general culture;
Merciny.^"life too,
We
still
more
regardless of changing taste,
the classical subjects, are the point.
313-
Museo
GiAMBOLOGNA.
Turkey. Bronze, height 24"
Nazionale, Bargello, Florence
Woman
so
is
the flying
see that they have virtuosity
and
and
these, not
The name Sabine
was given only after the sculpture had been
finished.
316a, b.
Giambologna.
Rape of the Sabine Woman.
1579-83. Marble, height I3'5"
Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence
317-
GlAMBOLOGNA.
7"^/
.J/lf;
urif.
I
j70. Plastered brick with stone, height about 35'
Pratolino (near Florence)
On a lower level, minor contemporaries of
Giambologna invented some images that jump out
of the taste of their time.
awkwardly mobile
The
intentionally sweaty,
art of V'incenzo de' Rossi
(1525-
and often vulgar, has kept
Florentine tradition, though his
1587), realistic in detail
him underrated
in
Dying Adonis, Theseus Embracing Hippolyta,
and six luibors of Hercxiles '"•' are tinglingly original
and have an anonymous
p>opularity. N'alerio Cioli
(1529-1599), despite a Bandinellian rigidity in his
habits of design, was able in his youth to rival
Giam-
bologna's naturalistic use of Mannerist conceits by
carving the duke's
fat
dwarf sitting nude on a
tortoise
and later echoed it in a series of garden
statues, of which a woman washing a child's hair is
the most effective.'"''
(fig.
318),
318.
Valeric Cioli. The Dwarf Morganu
Tortoise.
Florence
on a
Marble, height 46". Boboli Gardens.
\ Ula
Demidotf,
Leone Leoni, Moroni
41.
The
when the pope crowned Emperor
(who had recently sacked papal Rome)
date 1530,
Charles
V
marks the end of the Italian pattern
other than Venice and in part
Thereafter for centuries Italy was a set
in Bologna, best
of independent
Rome
itself.
cities,
of Austrian or Spanish dependencies. Milan had a
viceroy,
and
tlie
duke of Florence,
installed by an
imperial gesture, was happy to marry the daughter
of Spain's viceroy in .Naples. These circumstances
shaped the career of Leone Leoni (1510— 1592),
resident of Milan and portraitist of Charles V. He
was
a diecutter of coins
first
and medals
in
Rome;
since like most medals (but not Pisanello's) these
were struck rather than
cast,
Leoni was trained
to
Only when he was
forty and master of the .Milan Mint did his strong
and ambitious character lead him to large-scale
work. After visits to Brussels and Augsburg he drew
several Habsburg portraits, and soon after in Milan
cast lifesize statues from them (fig. 319). Their authority is in their firm volume, marked on the surface
by metallic shine and intricate linear ornament.
Along with the smith's training which made it possible for him to produce a figure of the emperor
that could be shown either nude or in a suit of
incise rather than
armor, '"^ he
may
model
a head.
well have been spurred
on by
seeing in Flanders work by Conrad Meit (see
p. 383),
the
Habsburg
eration,
portrait sculptor of the previous gen-
which similarly connects plain density and
sharp linear definition.
The
masklike remoteness
of Leoni's royal faces, in the state pwrtrait formula,
is
a startling contrast with his only large works in
stone.
of his
They are a row of slaves carved on the front
own house, with dangling heads and legs cut
off at the
knee
(fig.
320).
who had even been
Rome, and
these statues articulate his private char-
acter remarkably.
cessful artist
to Giulio
Leoni was a violent person,
a galley slave after a fight in
The
splendid house of the suc-
was agrowing tradition (from Mantegna
Romano and
\'asari),
difference between public
and
foretells the habits
but such an acute
and private
of the
art
is
new,
official artists in the
age of absolutism, such as the Carracci and Bernini.
Yet
it
seems natural that in
this early tentative case
319.
Leone Leoni. Mary of Hungary, Bronze,
The Prado, Madrid
height 5'5".
254
320.
Leone Leoni- Sculptured faqade
Casa degli Omcnoni, Milan. Width 54
GlAilBATTISTA MoROM. Thc TailoT
Canvas, 38" x 29". National Gallery, London
321.
the difference results in part from the private art
being executed by others; Leoni designed the slaves,
but perhaps more in the role of patron and owner
than as master of the workshop assistants.
Painting in Milan
taste of the
at this
period (until a fore-
Baroque appears with young
artists
about 1575) was a Mannerist routine, alluding to
Parmigianino and to Raphael. But the single sculptor,
Leoni, has a suggestive parallel with the single
painter of nearby Bergamo, Giainbattista Moroni
(docs.
i547-d.i578).
portraiture
painter
—
—and
it
is
the
They
first
sliare the specialty
of
instance in an Italian
the Spanish social context.
Though
wear black and stand before gray
faces,
monumental
achieve a
to illustrate a sitter's
Tailor
(fig.
and
with jumpy silhouettes, but more and more they
Gestures continue
trade, as in the
famous
must have been
a private
Bassano seemingly contented
only talent in his town, has immortalized the
local scKiety,
substantial figure. Early ones are relatively active,
this portrait
favor.) .Moroni, like
as the
on the quiet
stability.
motto or
the usual tranquil assurance. (Most of the sitters
are noble,
wear Spanish clothing or have Spanish or
German mottoes. He inherits from his teacher
.Moretto the effect of the subtle gray air
and the
321), cutting cloth but looking out with
Bergamo was under Venetian rule, many of Moroni's
sitters
walls,
watchfully noted for reality but not psychologv.
dence in
its
which has the same restrained
mores that we
complacent provincial centers, such
Edinburgh immortalized
two centuries later.
confi-
find in other stable
in
as the
Raebum's
and
one
in
p>ortrait$
42. Alessi
and Tibaldi
book of
Serlio,
Peruzzi's pupil.
Genoa
In
Alessi
could expand from modest labors to rather grand
mansions and
villas,
which play on the forms of the
Farnesina and Raphael's Villa
Madama, with
ele-
gantly proportioned fagades of thin pilasters
322). In his majestic church, Santa
Carignano (from 1549;
executed Bramante's plan
di
fig.
(fig.
Maria Assunta
323), he virtually
for Saint
only
Peter's,
making the dome taller. For clients in Milan he
seems to have added ornament, still more similar to
Serlio, encrusting church fagades with carvings, and
in Palazzo Marino designing a particularly imposing
courtyard with a double-columned portico under
an elaborate upper-story wall. His originality
in
not
is
forms but in the airy grandeur of his space han-
dling. Entrance halls wider than long, courtyards
growing out from the palaces into porticoed gardens,
the bridge from the fiont of Santa Maria di Carigna-
no
and
across to another hill
its
interior
places Bramante's sharp geometry with a
broad
322.
Galeazzo
Alessi. Interior view
toward
open area
45',
21'
stability, these are the optical creations
in a family of
was trained
V'aga's
less to
do with
own and
had no
artists
up in
Lombard stonemasons, but
of
its
as a painter
He
under
local imitators of
too went to
assistant.
His talent in decorative painting flowered
when he
frescoed a ceiling, back in Bologna, for
did not even, like Naples, invite visitors
for stays of
fought
early Renaissance art than
Italy. It
any length.
civil wars,
but
Its
gieat families constantly
did manage oddly to import
it
unique quantities of Flemish paintings, no doubt
witli the unique dominance of its life by
connected
the port
and shipping,
to the exclusion of local
manufactures. But when in Charles V's time Genoa
became a
clieiu state,
brought Perino del X'aga for
it
ten years to paint court decorations.
And from
1550
the arcliitect Galeazzo .\lessi (1512-1572) set the
tone of elegant living. Alessi was a trained builder
from Perugia, who typically began by assisting
forts, and then skillfully absorbed in
Sangallo with
Rome
the sophisticated style of the painter -architect
Peruzzi.
He
learned
it
from Peruzzi's works and
from the somewhat decorated version
256
in the
a
Rome, joined Perino del
large crew, and became his most independent
Raphael.
any other sizable city in
of
Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-1596) grew
x 15'
Bologna
Genoa had
re-
luminous
master more of building than of designing.
courtyard, Palazzo Cambiaso, Genoa.
Height of courtyard
which
hand-
323.
S.
Galeazzo
Maria Assunta
I74'6"x 156'
Alessi. Plan,
di
Carignano, Genoa.
Cardinal Poggi, with Mannerist figures in violein,
They bow remotely to the
more in spirit with Giiiiio
Romano's court Mannerism, ciesigned to be shocking and witty; they also have some of the sugary
tricky positions
(fig.
324).
Sistine Ceiling but belong
decorative richness of that other Mannerist fresco
Rome,
painter in
Salviati.
The figures are audacious
and absurd in taking impossible poses, and know it.
This is a solution to the problem of Michelangelo's
suffocating power: to admit one is imitating him
but
make
it
an impersonal game. Tibaldi's wittiness
reappears thirty-five years later in his frescoes in the
Escorial Library near Madrid,""' but otherwise he
painted almost nothing.
Milan
for
Working
Bonomeo, he again
an architect
in
plays artfully with powerful
motifs, effective because he really
clever.
as
Archbishop (eventually Saint) Carlo
Here too he
he makes a column begin to
angel to catch
it.
He
is
bold as well
fall
but then carves an
most impressive
is
as
Giulio Romano, when
like
is
in his
Col
Borromeo (1564; fig. 325) for the Universitv
of Pavia, where big niches alternate with windows
in up-down and in-out harmony, and rusticated
boulders swoop forward to clamp the main door.
The plastic exuberance and whimsical vitalism
are more genuine successors of Michelangelo's Laulegio
rentian Library than any other Mannerist architecture,
but
rest
on the
backgiound. Tibaldi's
last
stonemason
structural
works develop
a cleaner
dome, and
bold free colonnades in front of a church facade,
whose centralizing force predicts the High Baroque.
style
with spatial
325.
stress
upward, into
Pellegrino Tibaldi.
Facja
Collegio Borromeo, Pavia. 1564.
83'6" X 236'
a
324.
Pellegrino Tibauji. Gianl. Fresco,
0".
" x
Bologna
entire dimensions 6' 1
1
Ceiling, Palazzo Poggi,
1
1
' 1
Painters in
43-
Rome and
Florence after 1550
1550 Vasari's Lives included only one living
the seventy-five-yeai -old Michelangelo. In
have been discouraging. Typically, the chief excep-
artist,
tion to the trend
1568 the second edition of the Lives expanded to
include some who were quite young, but this only
da X'olterra (docs. 1532-d. 1566), a strong individual
In
reinforced
its
attitude that art had reached a peak
talent, rebelled
a virtual
worked a very narrow
vein. Daniele
by the simple expedient of becoming
copyist of Michelangelo's recent work.
with Michelangelo and Raphael and then declined.
His pictures are closer than ever to being sculptural
Mannerism toward past
art as a mine of style tended to assume, and to reinforce, the same view, and today we admire the work
of many Roman and t'lorentine painters younger
drawings, without color or space around the figures.
Certainly the attitude of
These are
gigantic, usually
looming before us alone
or in pairs colliding, with rippling muscles
harder
texture
than
Michelangelo's own.
and
This
The
limited range actually avoids any sense of competing
Medici dukes did very well with their sculptors,
with Michelangelo, but by concentrating power in
culminating in Giambologna, wlio was a European
these elementary images creates the most serious
than Raphael, but few younger than Bronzino.
figure
though perhaps not
architects, similarly
Their
painting of the time, in both senses, of nonfrivolous
mansions,
and imposing. His one masterpiece, the many-figured
a Florentine one.
busy with
festivals and
repeat old ornaments with a professional neatness,
decorative and rather gentle, that seems to
mark
their awareness that they are wearing their tremen-
dous heirlooms
in
a
provincial backwater (Ber-
nardo Buontalenti; Giovan Antonio Dosio). Indeed
Florence iiad lost its political and commercial
importance completely and was comparable to an
German duchy employing good
eiglueenth-tentury
musicians.
Among paiiuers,
Bronzinos chosen
.\lessandro .^llori (TiSS-'Goy),
is
heir,
totally routine,
but in 1570 he and a group of Vasari's students produced an original decorative work, the study of
Duke Francesco I. A series of rectangles and ovals,
with figures of graceful artifice in the Parmigianino
vein, surprisingly describe the trades
of Tuscany
(fig.
326).
These
ranging from alchemy
list,
to
and
industries
be sure are an odd
to coral fishing,
but
still
create freshly, once more, the Mannerist idea of
The whole
artifice
played against observation.
ect
minute treasure vault, and hardly any of the
is
a
young
artists
ever accomplished anything
qualities were evidently brought to
life
by
proj-
else; its
V'asari.
again the entrepreneur of a systematic project, and
by the hedonistic duke.
Rome
was better off because of
its
continuing
great role as the papal city, and the presence of the
aged Michelangelo. Vet the leading work about
1550, Salviati's
and Perino del Vaga's wall decoramust
tions, still exploiting Raphael's last formulas,
258
326.
Francesco .Moraxdim,
II Poppi
The Foundry. 1570. Canvas, 45" x 34".
Studiolo of Francesco I, Palazzo Vecchio,
Florence
327.
DaNILLE da VoLTtRRA.
Drposilion from the Cross. 1541.
Detached
fresco,
S Trinita dei
Deposition from the Cross,
is
thereafter timidity reduced
finally to a
early {1541;
fig-
327);
him move and more,
few sculptures, of which a head of his
master Michelangelo
is
the most
sigiiifttaiit
(1564-
Other painters began to use a very odd man
nered blend of Daniele and Perino's ornament.
This appears in the talented Taddeo Zuccaro
66).'"^
(1529-1566),
who
died young, and the
less
talented
indeed were the
best.
in the
was
1540s,
tliat
x8'6"
tomb and himself
provided an architectural plan for
it,
Guglielmo
but the result,
della Porta got
bogged down and never did another large work,
.\mmanati in the 1550s left Rome and turned to
architecture
more and more, and Leone
In 1570 \'ignola
first-rate artist there,
and he was one
was the one
of those rare architects
wriggling folds.
Vet
at his
l.eoni in
Rome anyway.
the 1560S was not in
hulking monumental gioups of figures covered with
peated encouragement Michelangelo gave to young
sculptors who were not imitating him, and who
13'
In each case he helped to
secure a big commission for a
Siciolante da .Sermoneta (1521-1580?); both paint
Sculptors' problems arc illustrated by the re-
aboui
Mond, Rome
who
practiced no other an.
death in 1573 he bequeathed to Giacomo
which mav well be
della Porta the Gesu, the church
called the
first
the fertilitv of
Baroque work of art, and
so confirmed
Rome.
259
Cambiaso, Barocci
44-
The
belief that (except for Venice) Italian painting
bad way in 1575 is a normal, but wrong,
extrapolation from Rome and Florence. The same
odd phenomenon that saw Palladio. the greatest
was in
a
living architect, content to stay in Vicenza
out
illustrated
books allowed small, previously
unproductive towns
Urbino, and the
and send
like
Bassano, Bergamo, and
sterile great city of
Genoa, each
to
have a painter superior to all those in the established
This may have a stylistic cause: the repetitive
artificiality of Mannerist imitation puts a premium
centers.
by contrast on freshness and even provincial naivete,
soon to be illustrated
at its
peak by Caravaggio's use
Lombard training in his Baroque revolution.
may also have an economic cause: Italy declined
of his
It
as a
patronage center, and the leading
to
artists
of
made trips
Germany and Spain anyhow; when that hap-
Venice, Genoa, Milan, and Urbino
all
pened, Florence had no advantage over Urbino.
The Genoese Luca Cambiaso (1527-1585)
at the same moment as Alessi, by looking at
what visitors had done in the city, not so much at
Perino del Vaga as at Beccafumi, who had been there
emerged
more
recently.
Hence come
his ceiling mythologies,
with foreshortened figures in a filmy translucent
brown. His drawings, in transparent brown wash,
328.
LucA Cambiaso.
The Madonna of the Candle.
Canvas, 57" x 43". Palazzo Bianco,
have a quick
Ge
zest
of line, and his shorthand methods
include cubes for figures (a convention that he did
not invent
—Diirer had used
it).
Both paintings and
drawings exist in enormous quantity, and
were told of
his painting
stories
with both hands.
The
paintings are very unequal; the altarpieces often
reflect local provincial traditions, the
the lubricity of Perino.
The
mythologies
strongest are the reli-
gious stories containing a tough genre element
328); in
them
from German
he. like
prints,
Romanino
which seem
earlier,
to
(fig.
borrows
match the plain
surface handling.
The much more remarkable
Federigo Barocci
He
Rome while young but returned to his native
(1526-1612) also liked luminous color surfaces.
visited
Urbino, where he avoided company and lived in
The turning point came when in some
way he learned of Correggio. The mining
habits of the Mannerists had made possible such
poor health.
indirect
direct leaps back across generations, but the dead
ends of their imitative works seemed to recommend
a return to a pre-Mannerist art. This was indeed
being tried in Florence by Santi di Tito (15381603), but he
produced merely an academic render-
ing of .-Xndrea del Sarto, with neat figures in blank
rooms (though he does seem
to foretell
Guido Reni).
Barocci 's return to Correggio produces something
more, because Correggio had himself been so experimental and because he is used only as a stimulus.
260
The
diagonal forms floating in cloudy textures
reappear, but Barocci goes further in what he convinces us
is
the same direction. Iridescent mother-
of-pearl emulsions
rich
shadowy
and chalky
pastels blend, with
transitions; figures, without plasticity
or line, have a sweetness that does not seem cosmetic.
Each
is
a pink or green nucleus spreading
into a dawn-gray world.
These
outward
effects carry
the
motifs of vision and ecstasy of the Counter Reformation
and
its
altarpieces. and,
on a milder
level, its
motif of encompassing, ingratiating love (colorplate
40).
This
art, so far
from our
taste, is
disconcerting,
and, produced in isolation, had small influence and
a complete
is easy to dismiss. Yet we must recognize
fusion of technical brilliance
and emotional view-
point so close in late instances to seventeenthleu-
showing endless variety of incidental
evocations of grief, natural yet cubically simplified
339)
M
(fig.
ranls, weepers,
where Philip was planning his dynastic tombs.
either side duke and duchess kneel, each presented
by a patron saint, and are received by the \'irgin,
set against the central door post. This is basically
underlined by
1404).
around the sarcoph-
process recalls Italian thir-
teenth-century painting but
ture of the
ished work, the duke's
Claus Sluter. Mourner,
from the tomb of Duke Philip of
Burgundy. 1404. Alabaster, height
Musec des Beaux-.Arts, Dijon
18".
to
sculp-
fig.
93).
Broederlam and Bellechose
343.
Henri Bellechose.
Crucifixion, with
Communion
and Martyrdom of Si, Dent:
When
1416. Panel,
5'3"x6'io
The Lou\Te,
Paris
Burgundy wanted a Flemish
and let Melchior Broederlam (docs. 1381-1409) paint them
the duke of
altarpiece. he sent the panels to Ypres
there.
The
result was this artist's only surviving
in the fat Joseph, a famous figure
he walks in front of the donkey, an
earthy matter-of-fact peasant whom Bruegel will
later see in the same way. Broederlam's vivid low-
most obvious
drinking
as
only one phase of the three-dimensional
work, since later religious wars destroyed what he
comedy
home. .-X Flemish sculptor, Jacques de Baerze.
produced the central gilded wood relief of the al-
mobility of
did
at
tarpiece
and two hinged wings
that fold over
it,
and Broederlam's
part was the outer surface of the
wings (colorplate
41).
They
are oddly shaped,
and
is
all
Not only do the people
the people.
push energetically through the spaces, but so does
the light, blending in depth from tone to tone,
lubricating the flow of force so that the beautiful
opalescent glows
move over
Broederlam share
the surface. Sluter and
a revolutionars
concern
for vi-
on each he had to crowd two scenes, one indoors
and one outdoors. He does not fight against the
brating physical activity of people, with a base of
frame, like Sluter, but tends to ignore the trickiness
spatial
of
its
forms, even while using every bit of available
surface. VV'here Sluter built
on real mass, Broederlam
environment, which
Flemish.
Its
is
not Burgundian but
origins are seen slightlv in the Maitre
in Pucelle
aux Boquetaux, but primarily
and the
hunts real spaces, constructing one complicated
building in a corner view next to another seen
Sienese painters (see pp. 267-68). These had, how-
straight on,
and making our eyes climb a mountain
where people, a wayside shrine, and a castle cling.
man
The
manipulation of spaces that now supports it. Broederlam's elaborate and articulate working of space
people, in big curving robes, develop in this
vehement environment
a
pushy vigor of action.
It is
ever, suggested
more
fully the sense of restless hu-
energy, and not as
makes
much
the highly tuned
Pucelle's look primitive, but he has modified
the pressure of physical motion relatively
One
niitmeiit to paint the altarpiece for the Carthusian
little.
other large altarpiece sur\'ives that
ilie
Burgundian court commissioned from a Flemish
painter. Jean Malouel was court painter in Dijon
monastery, representing Saint Denis (14 Hi. fig. 343).
Its figures have a physical impact of almost brutish
massiveness. but also a soft surface continuity be-
until his death in 1415 (earlier he had apparently
tween figures and lobes
and several small votive images ol
the dead Christ seem to reflect his presence there).
(see
altarpiece. old-fashioned in presenting several inci-
When
dents on one gold panel, exemplifies average trends
worked
in Paris,
he died his position in Dijon was taken over
by another Fleming, Henri Bellechose from Bra-
bant (docs. 1416-1440),
6.
who
The Duke
fulfilled Jean's
com-
as in the
Flemish Bondol
Both qualities will reappear, and
338).
fig.
from which extraordinary individuals
this
Broe-
like
derlain stand out.
Limbourg Brothers
of Berry and the
riie duke of Berry was less oriented to politics and
war than the other brothers. Ring Charles V and
Anjou and Burgundy. Beyond
he was happy
the dukes of
his re-
s[X)nsibiliiies as a feudal ruler,
a life
the
of luxury and patronage.
many
He
traveled
to live
among
rich castles he built, taking along his tap-
jewel cases, and illustrated manuscripts, of
estries,
hundred survive out of three hundred in
Only one castle remains, at Poitiers
(fig. 344). There we see his grand dining hall with
three fireplaces at one end surmounted by a carved
balustrade, and statues of the royal family more
which
a
his inventory.
The
elegant and less individual than Charles Vs.
room
as rebuilt in
is
destroyed
it.
The
1388 after the English had
duke's master mason,
Guy de
Dammartin, emerges fiom a typical family of builders
his brother had done the duke of Burgundy's
—
Carthusian monastery
(begun
1
at
Dijon.
The
tomb
duke's
405)^ presents his marble recumbent statue
by Jean de Cambrai
(d.
1438);
its
characterizing
realism betrays admiration for Sluter. but the form
344-
Grv de
Dam.martin. Great Hall,
Chateau of the Duke of Berry,
Poitiers. 1330. Width 56'
is
an incised cube rather than a cushiony mass.
duke's
came
first
sculptor was .-^ndre Beauneveu,
after Charles
X
The
who
died, but Beauneveu's only
surviving work for the duke
is
painted, the figures
of prophets illustrating a psalter in the sculptural
way already noticed. .Another of Charles
the Master of the
for the
276
duke
a
I'airiiicjil ilr
V's artists,
Xnrhoiiiif, painted
Book of Hours which
is full
of ex-
345-
T"^ LiMBOURG Brothers.
illuminated page
of the
January,
Duke of Berrv.
of the
".
Mus^e Cond^,
tlie
I'arrmfiil
but freer in color and depth. But his favorite painter
seems to have been anotiier Fleming, Jacquemart
de Hesdin (dots. 1384-1410).
is
of
Bern
1416.
Musie Condf.
5'.
Chantillv
picssive looping rhytliiii> ot line like
work
Duke
Vellum, illumination 8" x
Chantilly
The
identity of his
controversial, since he was evidently a
who worked
ager
October,
illuminated page in the Trfs Riches Heures
1416.
Vellum, illumination 9" x 6
The Limbolrg Brothers.
346.
in the Tris Riches fieures
in collaborative teams. If his
man-
hand
peasants, the Ires Riches
On
itig.
the other
Heures seems
hand
its
tracings from older art, like the pack of hunting
dogs copied from Giovannino de' Grassi's notebook
of animal motifs (see p. 102). Yet of course it still
remains an extraordinary document of life and work
can be isolated in one of the duke's Books of Hours,
of
now
others, records typical activities of each
in Brussels,"
he has a
personal style than
less
the Gothic Master of the I'uremenI and a
ern one than Broederlam.
less
mod-
offers processional
It
but lively groups before spatial backdrops, with
the typical Flemish soft organic surface, shifting
little
but
from the schemes of the Maitreaiix Boquetaux
less
linear
and more joiiuy
in detail.
After Jacquemart died the
de l.imbourg (dots.
ers,
who produced
1
402-d.
i.j
16)
duke engaged Pol
and his two broth-
the most famous manuscript
illustrations of this age, the
TrPs Riches Urines
of I he Diikr 0/ Berry (1415-16).
When we know
Broederlam. the Boucicaut Master
(see
p.
279),
and other contemporary explorers of landscape and
less surpris-
realism also conceals
art, especially
orplate 42;
figs.
the famous calendar which, like
month
(col-
345, ^46). People enact their lives
from of castles which render accurately the duke
is a somewhat twostage effect of front and back as in Jacquemart. but
in
of Berry's various homes; there
an atmospheric blend as in Broederlam. and
more than his in cast shadows and clouds. In one
month the duke feasts, in another ladies stroll and
pick flowers, and the sense of luxury is heightened
also
by the
artificial
j-hyihm of very thin curving line,
a I^te Gothic device like Lorenzo Monaco's in the
same
years (see
fig.
peasants plow or
the
fields,
59). In other
sit
by a
and the realism
fire
is
months the duke's
while snow covers
as specific as in Broe-
derlam's Joseph (see colorplate 41),
the
all
graphic through the contrast with the huge
The
sense of seeing everyday
classes
inescapable,
is
life
and the
among
more
castles.
various
ladies strolling are
working; a contempwrary
as true as the peasants
report describes the morning routine of the lady of
a
manor who walked with her
grass
attendants, sat
on the
and prayed from Books of Hours, and returned
and sharp,
contrast of classes was con-
as in the
contemporary poetry of
Chaucer. But (despite our temptation to see
this
in the duke's
a
modern
What we have
luxurious book.
medieval habit of classifying
and
all
visual realism.
the world in
King Charles
was
\'I,
The
the
who became insane and under
Hundred Years' War
Agincourt, symbolizes the
lost at
to
him but
of central
loss
artists
did not come
to his uncles, the dukes.
His gold and
jewels, recorded in long inventories, were melted
and dispersed. One bauble
New
survives, a
Year's
him in 1404 from Queen Isabel, a fantastic
jeweled gold-andenamel ornament (later pawned)
gift to
in
which the king kneels before the
and groom wait below
his horse
(fig.
\'irgin while
typical of this court art that the horse
is
name,
"the little
golden steed."
seems
more prom-
inent than the Virgin, giving the object
iar
It
347).
It is
its
a
famil-
mixture
of anecdotal realism and radiant glow.
Generals are the most interesting Paris patrons; in the royal burial
church of Saint Denis the
one remarkable tomb at this time is of the swashbuckling Bertrand du Guesclin (fig. 348). It was
carved in 397 by Thomas Prive and Robert Loisel,
1
the latter a French pupil of a Flemish sculptor of
Charles V, Jean de Liege, but shows
preciation of Sluter in
its
rich surface
ugly detail. Another rare survivor
is
a
quick ap-
and irregular
the
tomb of
the count and countess of Mortain (1412?).* whose
hard mass has
a fascinatingly
gauzy surface.
The marshal Boucicaut,
many cities, ordered the finest
military governor of
Paris painting of the
Book of Hours as marvelous as the duke
of Berry's Ires Riches Hemes, though less famous
reign, a
(finished
and
in
c.
1415;
fig.
349).
backw'ardness.
It is
extreme
in
The unknown
modernity
Boucicaut
Master loves the Gothic and feudal, displaying the
278
result
is
347.
Thr Virgin with King Charles VI
Knelling. 1403.
Enameled gold with
Church,
jewels, height 24". Parish
.Mtbtting
is
a
social
Rohan Hours;
the second phase of the
power. His father Charles \"s
so)
slots,
rep>orting.
Some Conclusions
whom
it
does not imply social protest, and of course not
The Boucicaut Hours and
7.
The
picking flowers.
scious
Robert Loisel and
^48
Thomas Priv^.
lomb of Bertrand du Guesclin.
1397. Stone, length 6'3".
Abbey Church,
marshal's coat of arms everywhere and using a line
rhythm as thinly graceful as any in the Trps Riclie.s
Hemes. But he explores space and light subtly, with
St.
Denis
Because there aie so unusually few regional
differences in
commonly
European
art of
about 1375-1425.
This
tailed "International Gothic."
it
is
gradually shifting gleams that avoid the front-back
is
often defined by
discontinuities of the Tres Riches Heures calendar
ing to be abstracted from nature, fashionably ele-
pages. In the famous Visilalion the Virgin's
and her book are held by pages, while the
gant
train
and with
its
use of ornamental line, tend-
aristocratic
references;
but
this
light
runs back to an atmospheric panorama more visu-
modern than anything before
ally
in north or south
Europe; medieval and modern intersect when sun
rays are
shown by gold
Interior spaces are
lines.
as sensuously alive as landscape;
developing from
Broederlam. partial side views
in
see glittering
no longer fabulous
little
objects,
deep rooms
us
let
jewels but ordinary objects picked out by real light,
and therefore pleasurable. The
many
other, simpler works,
Coene
(docs. 1398-1403),
X
little later
anonymous
artist, who has left
may have been Jacques
another Flemish
artist illustrated
for the ducal
Anjou
family;
another Book of Hours
it
is
Rohan
called the
Hours, from a
later ow'ner. Its space
modern, but
figures are.
its
visitor.
(1415 or 1425) a very different
and the
is
effect
not
is
at
all
like the
popular drama of the time. In the scene of the shepherds informed of Christ's birth, a very
fat
shepherd
with a big bagpipe and his thin wife are lower
8'
Paris
only a trace of the old patterns.
279
excludes too much, and
tion of earlier Gothic.
A
is
too
much
like the defini-
better definition combines
with nonlinear naturalism that shows
this linearity
people and things in ways that emphasize their
Gothic
social status. .Some International
tych
(fig.
Richard
is
almost
Lorenzo Monaco, or the Wilton Dip-
all line, like
King
351), a provincial English panel of
II
kneeling before the Madoruia, feudal
homage paid
to a court
filled
with long-winged
angels. In such works only the flowers are realistic,
and are selected because
as natural objects they
are already consistent with Gothic ornament; the
same applies
in
other paintings to greyhounds,
armor, embroidered dresses, and pointed towers.
Other International Gothic
linear, like Gentile
artists are entirely
non-
da Fabriano and Sluter,
who
agree in the soft surfaces of their forms; only some
edges of robes have Gothic
mixes both
traces.
Usually the style
in various suggestive ways, as in the
Riches Heures and the Rohan Hours.
frl-s
Some
of ihe most brilliant works fully synthesize both,
naturalism
versa:
this.
being ornamentally linear and vice
Pisanello
and the Boucicaut Hours show
Iransitional artists are coping in their techni-
(al veliide
with the
shift
social psychology, atid
saiue modeling.
350.
The Judgment of Mankind, illuminaled
page in the Rohan Hours. Vellum, 10
Bibliothique Nationale, Paris
351.
The Wilton Diptych,
Panel, each 19" x 12".
National Gallery.
London
280
V
7".
from feudal
to capitalist
fiom Gothic line to Renais-
coLORPLATE
Melchior Broederlam. Annunciation and Visitation: Presentation and Flight
41.
wings of an aliarpiece. 1394-99. Panel, each 66" x 49". Musee des Beaux-Arts. Dijon
into
Egypt.
The Limbourg BROTHERS. April, illuminated page
42.
Vellum, illumination 8" X5". Musee Conde, Chanlilly
coLORPLATE
in the Tres
Rukes Hemes of the Duke of Berry. 1416.
COLORPI.ATE
4_J.
Masilk
IntuDuRii..
6;.
Mu::hcj.. <..i3ljo bj. Panel, 45"
37". National Gallcr\, Pr.
COLORPLATE
44.
HuBERT and Jan VAX Eyck. Ghent
Cathedral of St. Bavo, Ghent
Altarpicce ;ck>sed
i.
14215-32. Panel,
1
1
6 a
77.
Prague and
8.
Following
Its
The most
intense influence from the court art of
on the court art of Prague, sometimes too
fecilely called the most distant point that maices
this art international. Charles IV (1316-1378),
the king of Bohemia, became Holy Roman Emperor
Paris was
and concentrated great resources on his ancestral
capital. He had been educated in France and marKing John
ried
so
ll's sister,
it
was natural that he
brought an architect from Flanders
to supervise
Prague Cathedral. But the succeeding architect
was Peter Parler (1330-1399) from south Germany,
the head of a large staff whose small-scale church
sculptures, groups of stocky busy figures, can be
seen in
many
Between 1374 and 1385 he
cities.
car^•ed in the triforium gallery of this cathedral a
series
of portrait busts
princes,
352)
(fig.
— the
emperor,
—appar-
and other notables, and himself
ently a kind of credit
for the building.
list
It is
not
surprising that the portraits seem naturalistic, and
yet their smiles, as in archaic
to
Greek sculpture, seem
be devices for liveliness, and some of the heads
are probably standard types of realism. But the
latest
do seem
to
as the figure of
This
who
1
is
be directly personal, as
V
Charles
in Paris (see
fig.
336).
head of Wenzel von Radecz,
clearest in the
Everywhere
new ways
in
set.
the fourteenth century that
of the Sienese and of Pucelle did not
reach, there survives an old-fashioned painling
sculpture almost mechanical in
tensionless thick curves,
century Gothic revival
from playing cards,
brass
so
took over as administrator of the cathedral in
380 and had to be added to the
the
much
tombs
(so well
h
and
with
much like the nineteenthknown to everyone todav
is
easily applied to English
known
altarpieces, conservative
its effect, flat
in rubbings), .Spanish
French Iwok
illustration,
and quantities of ivories (fig. 3.-,3), church and
close variant
secular textiles, and stained glass.
.-V
appears everywhere
in
tomb
sculpture, even that
by a leading Flemish siulptor in
353.
Ivory,
1367 (Jean de
Triptych of St. Sulpicf du Tarn.
13x11". Musie de Cluny, Paris
352.
Peter Parler.
Wmzil
von Radecz- 1380-85.
Stone, width about 19".
Cathedral, Prague
tomb of Queen Philippa of
Lifege's
typical in
West-
EiiRlaiid,
minster Abbey). Grand paintings in
this style are
Prague until the emperor's court painter
Master Theodoric (docs.
1359-1381) painted in
and
1367 a series of panels with heads of saints,
soft
translucent in flesh tones and startling in
tlieir ir-
Where lie came
unknown; he applies paint in tiie Bondol
manner and even more like provincial Flemish
regular bulkiness (colorplate 43).
from
is
panel painters, but the massive breadth of these
glowing people
by
Tommaso
Theodoric may have
different.
is
when
got the idea
the emperor brought paintings
da .\Iodena back from
Italy (see fig.
Thus his nonschematic modern painting gains
new if somewhat awkward lumbering grandeur,
50).
a
its
Prague (which soon ceased
center) was the
354-
Conrad von Einbeck.
Sandstone, height 20".
St.
Self-portrait.
Maurice, Halle
opalescent color. His only talented
lubricated by
successor in
anonymous Master of
to
the
be a
Tfebon
(formerly Wittingau) Altarpiece,'" w-ho thins the
proportions
down
again and emphasizes
tlie
glow-
ing surface light, thus producing a haunted cluster
mannered reworking of
of figures that suggest a
Bondol.
The
only worthy continuation of the Prague
group nearby is the work of the extraordinary sculptor and architect, for thirty-five years, of a church
in Halle, Conrad von Einbeck (docs. 1382-1416).
The grimness of his realistic
figures of the
mourners
of Christ, fiercely violent, and of his self-portrait
(fig.
354), seems to anticipate the expressionistic
much
vein in
German
later
art, all
being embedded
in
and conventional
fold patterns.
may be found
more
the
so for
rigid traditional symmetries
in his old age, using the
The
explanation
Conrad carved them
in the fact that
conventions of his Gothic
youth along with more recent attitudes.
Theodoric's truest heir
(docs.
is
Master Bertram
1367-1415) working in Hamburg, one of the
ports of the Hanseatic League.
He
fills
his narrative
panels with densely painted thick-limbed
figures in active
there
is
motion and
no space and the
hind the front plane
collision,
figures tend not to
(fig.
be be-
355). Bondol's tradition
Master Bertram. The Kiss of Judas, from
Passion Altarpiece. Panel, 20" square.
seems
Niederskchsische Landesgalerie, Hanover
exploitation of light and space, though retaining
355.
the
to
become
increasingly restricted from the
modern excitement about
the physical thickness
which
and energy of the
figures
the next century of
German
will
be basic in
painters. Master Ber-
tram in turn formed Conrad von
who (in 1404
German painting
Soest.
or 1414) signed the most notable
286
woody
even though
356.
Conrad vo\
Sovsi.
center panel of Niederwildungen Allarpi
lu-j/n
(
Stadtkirche, Niederwildungen
of the following generation
in
Dortmund near
(fig.
356)-
He worked
Dutch border, and thus nattraining by a renewed look at
the
urally modified his
the prestigious Flemish masters.
He
was evidently
most attracted by the Master of the Paremcnl de
Narhonnf's crowd action
(see
fig.
337),
composed
with a sharper grace than the local works, and so
he evolves intricate actions of weighted motion in
broad swirling rhythms. As
this tradition
is
passed
on.
it
has
become
rid of Gothic conventions of
me-
chanical pattern in the mere process of sloughing
off richness of resource;
its
fertility is
widespread
and long-lived though it is always provincial and
limited. Conrad Laib of Salzburg (docs. 1448-1457),
the leading Austrian painter of his time, was in his
youtii perhaps the last exjxjnent of the
Prague
for-
mula, until he turned to Conrad Witz' more up-todate ideas.
287
g.
Jan van Eyck: the Ghent Altarpiece
Certainly the mainstream of
Flanders.
The
third
modern
art
was in
duke of Burgundy, Philip the
Good, was less concerned than his predecessors with
French and feudal questions and more with close
back
later always
tended to make
begin with a
it
great person, Jan van Eyck (docs.
who worked both
for the
1422-d. 1441),
duke and
for
burghers
(only the latter works survive). This rise of the
administrative control of his Flemish properties.
school from nothing was a simple idea that redis-
Thus
covery of the great earlier
in his
working
at
time the Flemish painters shifted
to
home, and the Flemish Renaissance
school of painting really begins. Observers looking
357.
Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Ghem
Cathrdral of St. Bavo, Ghent
288
.\liai
Looking now
Rirhrs
at Jan's
Hemes
piece iopenl. 1426-32. Panel,
i
(the
first
i'6"x I5'2"
artists
has corrected.
work, we see that the Tres
of his antecedents to be
agreed
taught
to)
him
real detail; that Sluter.
showed him
pleasure of specific
the
perhaps more significantly,
that a naturalistic figure can be a digni-
moimment; and that the Boucicaui Master
showed him reality as a sensitive continuum ol
fied
Human action
light.
in the world, as in
Broederlam,
are also important.
are aspects of the artists'
.-Ml
transformation of naturalism into an art that celebrates nature.
No doubt
the idea of Jan van Eyck as "the
beginning" also was reinforced by the
ish
first
work
to the
is
fact that his
the largest produced by any Flem-
painter in his century (though
it
has contempor-
when we
shift
Boucicaui .Master) where grass,
and people
and tremble
glisten
it
from Sluter
far buildings,
slightly. Similar
atmospheric continuity apf)ears in the large figures
of .Adam and Eve and the donors, whose bodies
are invaded by a slight duskiness.
This synthesis of mass and light may be ab-
and niches
portrait, as in the Charles \' statues,
and the modern
very
a toul field of vision (as
solutely new,
and has the human
effect that the
massive figures are humbly aware that their environ-
ment, the world, limits their capacities (as a Gothic
figure was limited by its environment, a carved or
painted frame).
What emerges
is
that
\an Eyck
does not simply copy reality (like the academic
of later centuries for
realists
whom we
his intense look
have no
re-
proposes the fascina-
aiT rivals in north Gerinany), This altarpiece in
sfject)
but thai
many parts, about eleven by fifteen feet over-all.
was made for the chapel of a rich citizen (later
inavor) of Ghent in the Cathedral (fig. .S57)- The
tion,
the dignity, and the brilliance of physical
reality
lower part deals elaborately but rather elemen-
seriously,
tarilv
with
CUirist's sacrifice: in
on the
altar
ed from
C'hrist
part refers to divine rule
with
a triple
angels.
Holy l^mb
is
approach-
by clusters of saints in categories.
crown
M the
and judgment;
flanked by his usual
is
Judgment, .Mary and John,
assistants in the I.ast
and by
the
behind the fountain of life
all sides
The upper
the center, generally
lamb,
labeled the Adofulion of the
far
edges are .\dam and Eve,
alluding evidently to man's sin which Christ's sacrifice
redeems; .Adam and Eve appear similarly
at
the far edges of the frescoes by Masaccio at the
same date
(see
p.
74).
these images can be
.\11
covered by folding the sides over the central
panels,
whereupon we
fi.\ed
see images of the witnesses
of God's action, prophets and saints, the Atmucialioii,
and,
and
\'yd
finally, the
kneeling portraits of Mayor
his wife (colorplate 44).
The
painting
all
shows the most authoritative mastery of realism.
this, we may
when we reject
Since Jan van Eyck certainly intended
ask
why he commands our
resjiect
realism as a criterion in art.
The image
smooth-fleshed and luminous,
jewels, insistently massive
with
stiff
is
of Christ,
decked with heav7
and shiny; the angels
make odd faces
robes sewn with pearls
as they sing;
below, the
meadow
shifts
our focus
it
by absorbing
it
in gentle light, or f>olishing
with emphatic festive
light,
by following deuil
by stabilizing the forms, thus by honoring
it. This is a basic Renaissance approach, which Jan
van Eyck's immense skill completely articulates.
This altarpiece is surrounded by controversies
which luckily affect only secondary questions. Its
size and the odd variety of the pieces may mean
that
Its
it
was assembled from smaller previous projects.
instription
died in
1.426)
finished
it
Some
tells
Hubert van Eyck (who
and that his brother Jan
Which parts did Hubert paint?
us that
began
in 1432.
it,
observers say none, that the inscription
forgery
(a
less likely
is
a
occurrence than the giowth
of such speculation around any famous (jerson
as-
sociated with few facts, as in the case of Shake-
we know no other work by Hubert
Many different parts of the altarbeen considered his. One of the more
speare). Indeed,
with ceruinty.
piece have
plausible ideas
is
that he painted the Sluter-like
more formal and less atmospheric.
If so, the AiDiiincialloti would mark the point where
he stopped, after doing the figures; Jan would then
have painted the room with its shadows, shelf, and
still life, and the view through the window, which
would explain why the figures and the room in this
hulking
figures,
scene seem to be inconsistent.
to
289
Jan van Eyck: the Other Works
10.
Some twenty
(This
other works by
modern artist-personality;
fore him it is exceptional to
a
a dozen.)
life,
jaii
van Eyck survive.
another factor illustrating
is
.\11
liis
new
status as
in the generations be-
find an artist with half
these belong to the last ten years of his
and most are small, hardly bigger than the book
illustrations of his predecessors.
The Madonna
sents Jan's
and
faces
new
in the Cliurch
(fig.
358) pre-
on
solid sur-
utter realism of light
his specialized notations of textures.
Mary
stands bigger than a person could be because she
symbolizes the Church.
at the frontier
this
.All
shows Jan's position
between medieval and modern ways
of attributing meaning to what we
see. .\
modern
viewer could not accept the physically impossible
scale,
based on symbolic meanings; a medieval image,
showing symbolic
respect
and
so
sizes, would not be realistic in any
would not be subject to Jan's diffi-
both needs.
culties.
Jan wishes
case
the portrait of Giovanni .\rnolfini
is
wife (1434;
fig.
and the only
to satisfy
359).
It is
spectacular
and
his
the only double portrait,
full-length portrait, of
its
when we
oddities cease to be puzzles
is
.A
epoch; these
learn that this
not simply a portrait, but represents a specific
moment (which
|X)rtraits in principle
marriage of the couple. This
ness of a portrait in a
in a chandelier,
lit
do
not): the
fact resolves the strange-
bedroom and the one candle
in the daytime, both symbols of
marriage; the shoes and the dog of fidelity are
among
the ones that survive even now. All the symbols
have to be given a persuasive role as realistic objects,
possible to see in a room; this the .Middle .Ages
not have required of them. This
— extreme, the age of Impression—exclude symbolism, but not
can almost
truth can
ism
would
demand for physical
at its
in
yet. VV'e
inspect the picture as full of ordinary objects,
nonsymbolic
the
lit
level,
on
a
but there are always a few like
candle and the gestures of the hands that can't
quite be fitted in with such an approacii. VS'hen |an
makes symbols
fit
in this
way, we might suppose
358.
that he
is
a realist
by temperament, forced by patrons
to paint symbols.
But a better reading
realism of the symbolic objects
290
that the
an extra tribute to
them with more strength.
part of Jan's presentation of the world as won-
their high value, charging
It is
is
is
Jan van Eyck. Thi Madonna
in
a Church.
Panel, 12 1/4" X 3 1/2". Staatliche Museen,
Berlin-Dahlem
derful and dignified;
we
are
meant
to
admire the
traditional in this respect, but equally extraordinary
things, not (as with later realists) the artist's skill in
in
copying them.
to armor-hinges,
Natural reality as something splendid and holy
is
its
minute, exact drawing of reality, from wrinkles
which never looks fussy because
it
always light-filled and thereby unified and glori-
appears in another way in the \'irgin painted for
fied.
Philip the Good's great minister C:hancellor Rolin
eight of Jan's surviving paintings are simple portrait
Along with shining jewels and the microand telescopic landscape, the donor is not
only in the same scale as the \'irgin (as earlier with
Sluter; see fig- 339) but in the same space, and without a saint to perform an introduction. The I'irgiii
of Canon van der I'aele (1434-36; fig. 361) is more
heads, including his wife's (1439;
(fig.
360).
scopic
359-
Ja-">'
va.n
Eyck.
Giotanni Amolfim and His Wife.
1434. Panel, 32"
x
.National Gallery,
23".
London
Besides the significant {xjrtraiis in these works,
fig-
362)-
This
works contrasts with
large proportion of all his
his
contemporaries in Florence, Masaccio and others,
who
painted no
f)ortraiis
religious works (see
fig.
other than donors in
86), leaving portraiture to
minor, more conservaiive
artists.
The
contrast
is
a
360.
Jan van Eyck.
The Virgin and Chancellor Rolin.
Panel, 26" x 24".
The Louvre,
Paris
361.
Jan van Eyck.
Virgin of
Canon van der
1434-36.
Paiir.
Panel, 48" -"62".
Groeninge Museum, Bruges
^s
-.
x>2 ._,^s ;
^cL
."(:js
.-
vs;i
'I
'^
y
1\
i\
./
/'
->.tm
.J
token of a differing view of reality. In Jan (he specific
detail
real,
is
and many
details collect to
world. In Florence the field of vision
is
make
a
which
real,
perspective and other tools then neatly subdivide
down
to the detail.
The same
difference emerges in
the pleasure in texture in the north, in formal composition in the south,
Still
in many other corollaries.
move toward more breadth
and
Jan's last works
and simplicity than before, with fewer and larger
figures dominating an area. He is thus the master
not only of the object but of its bonding into an
optical continuum of the world.
362.
Jan van Eyck.
Portrait of His Wife. 1439.
Panel, 13" x 10".
Groeninge Museum, Bruges
1 1
The Master
.
of Flemalle
.\hex the death in 1416 of Pol de Limbourg, the
last
of the older generation, there
is
a ten-year gap
He is concerned with the same things
and celebrates physical man and objects as
before the sudden appearance of Jan van Eyck's
pants in the holy mysteries.
mature statements. In
the oil
that
decade another painter
emerged, older than Jan yet already a worker on
panels for city merchants, not on books for dukes in
castles.
He
thus
may have
the better claim to be
called the originator of Flemish Renaissance painting, but he
was soon eclipsed, and only rediscovered
by twentieth-century historians.
They
first
assem-
bled a group of paintings that appeared to be the
work of one
artist,
whom
they labeled the Master of
Flemalle. Later they identified the artist (with high
probability but not certainty) as Robert
Campin,
as a
He evidently developed
medium, with which Jan was
key ingredient
(it
is
later credited,
had long been used
ways) for translucent or polished
ows
as Jan.
partici-
effects.
in minor
Deep shad-
rooms and cool bright surfaces reinforce
Still, compared with Jan. the
spaces and volumes.
Master
(nearly
is less
all
sure of himself, the objects he paints
in altarpieces;
he made few portraits)
have a rougher and more impetuous form. His
early Bctrolhal 0/ tlif I'irgiti
what
like
larly side
(fig.
363) shows, some-
Broederlam, two buildings placed irreguby side, one round and one square.
The
who appears in many documents (from 1406d.1444). Campin was the leading painter in the city
of Tournai with many apprentices; an officeholder
they cannot be accepted and employed for some fur-
during a
ther
later
citizens' revolt against the aristocracy,
helped out of trouble by the
but
local countess.
nearer one
is
packed with people crowding and
bumping. Space and mass
how
are in active explosion,
aim as they are by Jan; at this earlier moment,
to manage them is the topic of the experiment.
293
363
Master of
Flemalle.
Betrothal of tht
Virgin.
Panel,
30 i.'4"x34
1/2".
The Prado, Madrid
364.
Master of
Flemalle.
Virgin of the Fire
Screen.
Panel,
24 3/4" X '9 '/4"National Gallery,
London
A Madonna
in a
room
is
a
huge white-robed
figure
A firescreen
sitting scarcely
above the
behind her
neatly placed to serve as a halo
is
floor
(fig.
364).
—an
ordinary object doing duty as a symbol, as in Jan,
but in a glaringly noticeable, even heavy-handed
way.
The
far
end of the space
is
accented by
shutters that project forward in a zigzag.
window
The
heavy
planks with studs and hinges are typical Flemalle
objects,
roughly articulated, spatially expansive,
not dexterous.
Thick people near
furniture again
fill
his
the floor
and big
jostling
most famous work, the
Merode altarpiece of the A iimiciation
(fig.
365).
The
much, as if
seen from above, and we are often shown broad tops
of objects, which curiously flatten the paintings for
floor in perspective tends to rise too
eyes ready to focus in that way.
A
Crosi, perhaps his largest painting,
in a fraginent
(fig.
366); the
altarpiece.
with
a
is
preserved only
wicked thief and two spectators
whole was almost the
The
Descent from the
size
of the
Ghent
writhing muscular figure outlined
on the gold has an expressive force that Jan never
sought; it recalls Sluter and is to be thought of in
relation to
Tournai.
294
Campin's close links with sculptors
in
For he designed statues and painted
Master of Flemalle.
Merode Altarpiece of the Annunciation.
363
Center panel 25" square, each wing 23"
Cloisters, Metropolitan Museum
366.
The
of Art,
New York
finished ones,
like
and originated the device of statuepaintings on the backs of altar-
One two-figure group, an.4 >i»n(fi(/a/;o/i
carved in 1428 by one Jean Delemer and painted
by Campin, is preserved in bad condition." It resembles the Master's dramatic thrusts of masses into
space and suggests that painting and sculpture interacted in early Flemish art, but too
is
known to say more.
The gold backgiound,
the
little
tilt,
sculpture
and the straw
halo are old-fashioned elements that inix but do not
blend with the Master's eager modernity, .^fter
about 1430 new ideas had passed him and he surts
to imitate Jan and then Rogier van der Weyden, so
that
it is
not surprising that he was forgotten later.
Yet outside Flanders he was more imitated by young
artists
plete
than |an was. perhaps because
model
iiity
tht Cross,
surviving
fragment. Panel. 52' x 32'.
monochrome
piece wings.
Master of Flemalle.
Dtscenlfrom
was more accessible.
this less
com-
The
12.
Towns
tun,-
all
Flemalle Style in
o\er Germain in ihe eaiK hlteeiith ten-
were producing altarpietes w itli
variations.
slight regional
Most are old-fashioned and anonyinous;
modern ones tend
the few
Germany and Elsewhere
to
be those by
named
—
a typical correlation at the beginning of
artists
the Renaissance. Far
up the Rhine near Switzerland.
Lucas Moser "from Weil" signed an altarpiece
143Z in the village of Tiefenbronn."''
as
modern
in
space has
Master of Flemalle's, and
a system as the
heavy irregularly linked buildings
who
Its
filled
press each other at close quarters.
with people
But
excite-
ment about physical volume is mixed with elements
more archaic than in the Master's work; there is
light but no air, and faces and objects become simple
bright planes with graphic force, which do the jostling themselves, making asymmetrical powerful
gestures.
The
result
is
a cool, clean, strong, fiercely
energetic image, oddly supported by the complex
altarpiece carpentry that cuts
trarily as in a stained glass
this, his
up
the space as arbi-
window.
On
the fi-ame of
only surviving work, Moser added a
state-
and complain
no one cares for you any more." The word
"art" must have the sense of expert skill in the craft
of painting, but Moser's distress must have been
based really on having no one to share his new-
ment
to his signature: "Cry, art, cry,
deeply,
standards imported from Flanders.
But from the town of Rottweil, not far away,
more urbane artist with these standards, Conrad
Witz (docs. 1434-1444), came in 1434 to settle in
Basel, in what has now become Switzerland, where
the General Council of the Church was meeting. His
a
huge altarpiece there
ration,
is
of suitable theological elabo-
showing the correlation of the Old and New
Testaments in the twelve parts that survive
367). Space
is
not
much
(fig.
explored; figures standing
and solid, hard
and often with intricate
against gold backgiounds are thick
and very shiny
in texture,
turning or leaning poses or brought suddenly to
life
by vivid and even comic expressions, almost like
Broederlam's Joseph (see colorplate 41). But when
there
is
space
it
is
Flemallian. tilted
368.
up
at a
wide
Jacob Kaschaver.
Madonna and Child. 1443Paimed wood, height 69".
296
Bavarian National Museum,
Munich
Conrad Witz. The
367.
from Altar of Salvation. Canvas on
panel, 34" / 32". Kunstmuseum, Basel
I
angle for people to
robes.
The
sit
on
in
(rumpled spreading
is to those works
only obvious likeness
of the Master of Fleinalle with few figures, like the
London Madniina
(see
fig.
364).
painted for the bishop of Geneva
(a
In
Wit/
1444
participant in
the council) an altarpiece of .Saint Peter, which
doubt
reflects the bishop's political position
no
on the
papacy. Besides energetic stocky pressing people,
with burnished costumes,
it
also presents
an ex-
traordinary lake landscape in the scene of the Miracidoxis Draft
of Fishes (colorplate 43).
glassy breadth
is
Its
smooth
a provincial modification of
wide
water landscapes bv the Master, in turn inspired b\
369.
Master of the Aix Annunciation. An
.Mx-en-Provfnrr
such pioneering images as the Boucicaut
(see
fig.
349).
The
figures similarly
I'tsiialion
modify the Mas-
away from relativelv complicated flexitoward the elemental and plain. L'sing his
ter's figures,
bility
and
predecessor's sense of weight, depth,
character,
Witz
is
impelled to use his
own
force of
feeling
for big clear units in painting a landscape space
unprecedented sweep, and
of
figures with a special
power of simple gesture.
It is
not surprising that the Master alsoattracied
German sculptors looking for modernity. The \'icnnese Jacob Kaschauer (who was also a painter)
known from one
set
of painted statues
made
in
i
is
143
The painter, more
may have had direct
Flemalle. So also may the
vibrant cityscape far behind.
sophisticated than Witz himself,
links with the Master of
anonymous
for a
artist
church
of the astonishing Annunciation
in .^ix-en-Provence (1443-45;
fig.
369).
these regions are politically connected; Witz'
.\11
patron the bishop of Geneva had earlier been bishop
of .\vignon, the next town to Aix, and
still
The
chancellor to the duke of Burgundy.
earlier
figures of
the Annunciation again kneel on the floor in wide
crumpled robes. Close to the foreground, they contrast abruptly with an immense perspective flight of
depth. But
now
the skin has an Eyckian (or Flemal-
lian, of the last phase) textural realism of flesh,
wrinkles in cheeks and fingers.
the artist was a Flemish wanderer, and not the
distinct
370.
CoLANTON'io.
St.
JcTome
in
His Study.
di
first
French paintersince the Master ofthe Rohan
Hours twenty-five years before. But the cubic wooden
like one of Witz', and the
Panel, 50" ^60".
Museo Nazionale
and
Some have thought
form of the head of God,
Capodimonte, Naples
disjunctive composition of space doing everything
except contain the figures, while they in turn press
downward
for the
main
Bavaria
and
(fig.
altar of the Cathedral of Freising in
368).
soft surface
painting; the
in
a
revolt against giaceful line
even more conspicuous than in
Madonna moves
The rocking motion
focuses
on the Child, who
sudden informal realism crawls horizontally
puppy
in his
Mother's arms.
saved from oblivion,
is
like
The artist, thus barely
a basic ancestor of the realism
of the next two generations of GeiTnan sculptors.
Witz'
own
the Master E.
school in the
S. (fl.
Upper Rhine included
1466-67), the
first
ality in the history of engraving,
clear person-
who
kept these
formulas vigorously alive until his death around
1470.
The
school's masterpiece
is
the
anonymous
Anthony and Paul (1445);'^ two saints in
crumpled costumes sit and gaze at each other quietly
across the space of a shadowed meadow, with a
Saints
298
He
indicate
is
still
restating
another talent
tlie
Flemalle idea
own emphatic
of physical truth with his
simplifica-
tions.
heavily and irregu-
with angular, blocky, centrifugal thrusts of
larly,
line.
is
The
statically,
in the provinces.
Since
Rene of
.Anjou, the remarkable ruler of
Provence (and thus of
.\ix),
invaded Naples,
it
is
not strange that the same form of modern vocabulary
is
used by the chief Neapolitan master around 1440,
Colantonio. His Saint Jerome
among tumbling books and
is
(fig.
swamped
still life,
another wide-limbed figure in wide-angled space,
but with suaver Italian modeling.
still
shows
traces in
tiveness
is
best suggested
Fra Filippo l.ippi, uses
in a
The
tradition
Naples when thegreat .-Xntonello
da .Messina arrives twenty years
when
it
later.
But
its
effec-
a Florentine master,
in 1437.
His Madonna^^
wide-angled room, with a copy ofthe Flemalle
hinged shutters,
ai
370),
other vigorous
is
proof that he had looked intently
some example of this
art.
13.
Master Francke; Stefan Lochner
iiated b\ the
Boucicaut Master or Pol de L.imbourg.
The likeness is lesssurprisingsince their illuminated
pages already had the quality of
independent
and more un-
little
paintings. Master Francke's earlier
usual altarpiece. the legend of Saint Barbara
371),
and thick with
in tone
blond
is
(fig.
who
figures
turn through space, gracefully linear in their gestures
but also full of graphic character. \\\ this, and the
scoop behind the front plane that
spatial
tradition traceable to
Flemish
in 1371. In the best-
Bondol
scene, Saini Barbara Betrayed, she
known
up an
sets
stage, speaks for the
adequate platform
con-
is
cealed in bushes while her richly dressed pursuers
pause to ask two shepherds where she has gone.
When
they betray her, a miracle transforms their
sheep into grasshoppers, some twenty painted one
by one on the ground. The effective drama, the
precision of the anecdote, has made the image fa-
mous.
Its
contrast of brocaded lords
shepherds
is
much
calendar of the Ires Riches
that
grow small
and small ugly
like the separate areas in the
in the
Hemes, and
foreground are
forms
its
much
like the
small foreground trees in the Boucicaut .Masters
I'isilation (see
fig.
349), not disturbing because they
help to show eventhing plainly. But unlike the
Boucicaut Master, Master Francke eliminates effects
of light, which in his provincial view must have
seemed
is
a
a distraction
mix
like the
tions are
371.
Master Francke.
Si.
from Legend of St. Barbara .Mtarpiece.
Panel, 36"x2i". National Museum, Helsinki
in
he
his storytelling; thus
and
fresh observation
Boucicaut Master, but in him the conven-
more powerful.
Of course
Barbara Betiay/d,
from
of old convention
the simple, purely ornamental factor
International Gothic has a constant effect on
German
panel painting, too.
.\
neat exainple
1420 or
little
Garden
by an
unknown artist who was perhaps of the
of I'aradise
(c.
is
later; fig.
the
372)
I'pper
Rhine, near Switzerland, biu perhaps of the Middle
Rhine, near Cologne; the uncertainty
reflects the
north (>ei-maiiy the strongest personality of the
Master of Flemalle's generation learned, like him,
standardized quality of the International Gothic,
from the great Flemish book illustrators. Master
Francke superseded .Master Bertram as the artist of
wide perspective encloses ladies looselv grouped
III
especially toward the end.
.-K
wall with Fl^nialle-like
in
pieces of
and Child, saints and an
angel, and charming birds and flowers, all the elements of "tapestrv-like" artificial grace and none of
later altarpiece), all with the look of pages illuini
ihc tough elements.
the
Hamburg merchants, and has left two big altar
many parts (doc. 1424, the ordei for the
the garden, the N'irgin
299
This mood prepares the way
for Stefan
Lochner
born on the Upper Rhine but
the leading artist in Cologne. His concern
(docs. 1442-d. 451).
1
later
seems
to
be to preserve the International Gothic
scheme of things when
more
it
has
become archaic, the
work tries for a
so as he goes on. His early
skillful
Eyckian reality with perspective systems,
skin textures of hands,
But
as lie
and
in a
and
brass dishes
on the shelf
matures, his Adoratioti of the Magi is
rigidly symmetrical on a gold background (fig. 373),
.Madonna image he paints brocades and
the flowers of an arbor on a gold-leaf base,'^ so that
their space
372-
Master of the Frankfurt Garden
Garden of Paradise. Panel, lo"
" 12".
presupposed and then denied. Since
is
the saints' sweet blank faces continue to be painted
with the textural materialism of Jan van Eyck, the
Stadel Institut, Frankfurt
result
is
the
phenomenon
of "easily accepted late
primitivism" so favored by Victorian observers in
Fra .\ngelico and other
artists.
In a late work, figures
stand before an altar, '^ which alone asserts space
for their WTiggling robes, the rest
vacuum. The
is
a skilled sentimentality; this
ponent in the
373.
Stefan Lochner.
Adoration oflhe Magi,
center panel of triprvch. 7'io"x8'7".
Cathedral, Cologne
being a motionless
total effect of the bright soft surfaces
remains
vast fifteenth-century
German church
a basic
com-
production of
paintings, along with the energetic
toughness of another more modern vehicle.
Rogier van der
14-
The
Master of Flemalle's greatest successor was
naturally in the Master's
Among
der
Weyden
of Tournai.
the great painters of history, Rogier van
Weyden
and
own town
is
one of the
Michelangelo)
few'
(along with Giotto
who completely dominated
for more than a generation.
enough through his work but
life: he was born in Tournai
399
or 1400) but lived chiefly in Brussels, where he was
Italy in 1450,
and died
is
we can
in 1464.
officially
apprenticed to
wide region
but his age
We know
him
an
little
through
his
(
1
dated, and
guess their sequence only from hints.
artists in a
well
he made a trip to
None of his works
official city painter;
at
It is
He was
1427 to 1432,
the time suggests that he was really
assistant; his earliest
pendent.
Campin from
basic to
it
work
is
already very inde-
that Rogier takes the con-
374.
St.
Rogier van der Weyden.
Lukt Painting
the Virgin.
54"x44".
-Museum of Fine -Arts, Boston.
Gift of Mr and Mrs.
Henr\' Lee Hig^nson
Panel,
301
ROGIER VAN DER WeYDEN.
375-
Crucifixion Aitarpiece.
Panel, 40" x 54".
Kunsthistorisches
Museum,
Vienna
quest of realism for gianted; his art
involved with
.\s
it
like the Master's
is
not excitedly
and Jan van Eyck's.
Castagno, in Florence, does not demonstrate
mastery of all Jan van Eyck's modern material realism,
is
and
his use of it to furthera
illustrated in the
bony
new expressiveness,
Mary Magdalene
fingers of
perspective any more, Rogier does not demonstrate
when
volumes or textures or
poignancy, and again in the one figure
The
concentration
is
uses
Aiiinincialioii^^
early
bench and
motifs, like the long
but the room
light.
Flemalliaii
still-life
comparatively very empty. Rogier's
on human
is
reality, impressively so
in his early masterpiece, the Deposil'ton
Cross
(colorplate 46).
abstract
objects,
background
The
from
figures are set
as if they
llie
on an
were sculpture
in a
shallow shrine, with emphatically silhouetted gestures; their interrelationships, a
and
torsos,
make
abstract space
is
a
drama of
woven net of arms
tensions.
We
see that
reinforced by abstract design
we become aware
when
that the farthest figures to left
and
in a
on each other uses realism
their pressure
brocade robe, painted
possibly because he
Christ's
is
tragic stress
Luke Fainting
updated
in
that
for
is fat,
an Eyckian type very
man who
the rich
provided
tomb. Bony people may also pose
rhythms when
Saint
as
who
in zigzag
not involved, as in
is
the Virgin
(fig.
374), a
theme
the artist-saint draws from the
model, implying realism; earlier images of Luke
artist
show him holding a completed
and landscape here are
Eyck's Rolin
(see
thin projxjrtions and a
360), but with
fig.
less filled
window on
a
as
The space
from Jan van
closely copied
Madonna
shallow stage with a
icon.
landscape.
tall,
The
deep space beyond
right are symmetrical, each a zigzag profile pressing
the terrace allows Rogier to cultivate the values both
forward with bent knees. Likewise Christ's bodv.
of medieval concentration on meaning and of mod-
hinged in three parts
arm
trailing, has a
ing body of Mary.
at hips
and knees with one
shadow or repetition
The thin
boninessofall the people
makes these patterns more obvious; the physiognomic
type
is
also a device suggesting tension, as the
forms seem pulled and stretched. Sometimes
it
sug-
gests a reversion to the over-tall elegant people of
International Gothic, as in the
garden
(see colorplate 42),
different implication
from
perhaps the Rohan Hours
302
duke of Beny's
but these people have a
all
ern natural truth.
The
in the faint-
Crucifixion triptych
(fig.
375), a fencelike
system of taut bodies and flung robes,
a
huge open landscape, perhaps the
is
set against
first
that con-
tinues through three panels of a triptych, and
it
a huge sky which
and the angels. The result
runs back to a sharp horizon and
silhouettes the dark cross
is
a
wide-embracing blend of familiar natural con-
young
the earlier ones except
text
and dramatic
350). Rogier's
and
to a society interested equallv in religion
(see
fig.
even
sweeps the donors into the event. The landscape
stress, fascinating to
artists
and
nature,
and inclined
both as parts of a
to think of
single whole. Traditional schemes
tions for
them
and
fresh loca-
relate sharply again in the ImsI Jitdg-
tneiil,
ordered by Van Eycks old patron Chancellor
Rolin
for the chapel of his
newly endowed hospital
court above, in Rogiers
Burgundy.'' A celestial
hard glassy color, presides hieratically but also
atmospherically above a strip of earth where panin
icked souls scramble and run, insect-like versions
of Rogiers thin-jointed people with Eyckian skin
textures.
But the
airy breadth of these
works reduces
the high-pitched stress of the earlier ones
perhaps
less in
The
and
is
the physical character of pain.
home
seems to have made
where the strings people grow gentler
and the Columba altarpiece
for Cologne,
(fig. 377), an Adoration oft he Magi done
and more
sensitive;
where this was a favorite subject, echoing the
symmetry of Lochners version (see fig. 373).
a city
It is typical
of Rogier that he could absorb into his
figure style of angular skeletal types a
more reposed balance of figure relations. The
life of Saint John the Baptist (fig.
gamut of
376) is a virtual paradigm of Rogiers
opposite. His unity
resources.
The
Eyckian room
Birth, a domestic event,
full
of
warm
Baptism, a ceremonial,
376.
is
light
and
Rogier van der Weyden.
St.
in
an
dishes; the
and the
centralized,
Staatliche Mu«een, Berlin-Dahlem
is
John
in-
row of
secretary, '9
unchanging
triptych of the
a
half-length figures (an Italian idea new to Flanders)
against a cool series of skies, as well as the Bladelin
altarpiece for the duke of Burgundy's financial
oven mathematical designs more attractive, leading
to a
The new
dominate the Braque triptych, >«
terests
static
revolt against Jan.
Italian trip in 1450
anointed Christ suggests International Gothic dainspace
tiness and rank; the Death, a melodrama, uses
and bring
to pull arms and legs from their sockets
cushioned amiability that would have seemed
human
It
was
mine
next
.\ltarpiccc. Triptych,
feelings
his
is
—
of almost any emotional timbre.
dramatic range that
for artists all over
fiftv
its
that these figures articulate
years.
each panel 30' a 19".
made him
the favorite
northern Europe during the
377-
RoGiER VAX DER Weyden.
Alte Pinakothek,
304
Munich
Adoration of the Magi, center panel of
Columba
Altarpiece. 54
"
x 60"
1
1
5-
Rogier's Contemporaries
esser figures
begin soon
to use the
pioneers, which
become
Flemish realism.
The earliest
methods of
tlie
the standard vocabulary' of
is
Jacques Daret (docs.
an approximation.
traits,
works
is
known
(1434-35).^''
They
assistant of C^mpin, this helps to
to specialists;
beyond
a
recorded
prove that Campin
was the Master of Flemalle. That
interest
imitate the
is
that,
is
their
main
these rather
flabby echoes of the Master's later, Eyckian works
serve to
show an idiom
in use
by an imitator which
smooth round shapes.
pxjsitive
fonn in
his
accurate perspective, since Jan's had always been
1418-1468); he had a long career and was head of
Master of Flemalle directly; since Daret
to
His sense of clear order takes a
the guild in Tournai, but only one early group of
his
down
subtle surface detail
which
vivify
He
most individual
is
in por-
persons not only in features and
lighting but in environment, in a corner of a
or behind a ledge on which a single
This
specificity of place
shown
(fig.
the
richest in his panel of
shop selling a ring
in his
378).
is
patron saint of goldsmiths,
Eligiiis,
Saiiil
The
room
painted.
fly is
who
to a bridal
is
couple
and stock on the shelf record
Jan had given to
tools
same particular
reality that
a few years before had belonged to two or three bold
dishes in a cupboard; but the larger scale lets this
individuals.
painting work as a unique portrayal of daily
Petrus Christus (docs, from 1444-d. 1472/73)
workedwith Jan van Eyck and finished some pictures
incomplete
is
a
at Jan's death.
limited one. but
it
is
the period, anticipating what
of a kind often evolved
bv followers: he simplifies the images, wiping the
.\lbert
c.
ver>'
life
of
common
Flemish painting.
in sixteenth-century
His distinction from Jan
becomes
van Ouwater (no exact records; active
1450-1475)
is
the
first
Renaissance painter of the
north Netherlands, detached from the great towns
378.
Petrus Christus.
Si. Eligius in
His Shop. 1449.
Panel, 39* X33".
Courtesy of the Robert
Lehman
Collection,
New York
305
ofthe time which are
Brussels,
all in
modern Belgium
(Bruges,
Ghent, Toiirnai, Louvain). Almost noth-
ing but rather traditional book illustration precedes
him here, and not even that in his town of Haarlem.
There the patrons were not burghers but monasteries, and to this difference his one surviving work,
the Raising oj iMzarus, no doubt owes
solemnity
It
as well as its
its
unrelieved
complex symbolism
(fig.
also reflects awareness of Petrus Christus,
379).
i.e.,
of
a very recent aspect of painting in the southern
cities.
In the firmly constructed space of the temple,
solid,
plain
make
figures
their serious
intricate
on one side and doubting Jews on
the other, while still more peer in through a grille
behind. The control of composition and diffuse
gestures, apostles
light
make
credible the tradition that
and
also a master of landscape,
work was
in this
Ouwater was
his authoritative
also a natural source for
younger
artists
northern Dutch area, starting with Geertgen
tot Sint
Jans (see
p. 315).
.Albert van Ouwater.
379.
The Raising of Lazarus.
Panel, 48" X 36".
Staatiiche Museen, Berlin-Dahlem
Dirk Bouts
16.
Major
now emerge,
talents as well
to
work within
the established revolution and to evolve subtle
variations
upon
it.
The
first,
Dirk Bouts,
is
one of
the least-known artists of the highest level in the
early Renaissance, partly because his
work
and
largely in Louvain, a little-visited city,
because of
its
own
is still
partly
understated tone, even hiding
its
originality.
Bouts (docs, from
i447-d.i475) came from
Haarlem, and shares something of Ouwater 's mood,
but lived in Louvain
painter to the
approach to the
all his
At
city.
mature
first
figure, giving
life
and was chief
he follows Rogier's
it
all
the emphasis
Dirk Bouts. Martyrdom of St. Erasmus.
X 31 3/4".
Pierre, Louvain
380.
center panel of triptych. 32 1/8"
St.
306
and articulating
it
by angular movement. But sharp
tense angles are held to slight tentative
so that the
figures
become
stabilized
movements,
and
silent,
reserved and self-contained, resting hard on the
ground.
like
The
bodies acquire a quality of being there
mountains, unarguable
facts
rather than vehi-
way Bouts starts out with a
negative compromise between Rogier and Jan van
Eyck, omitting what in each master conflicted with
cles of passion. In this
the other. While, like Jan, he excludes the nervous
stress
with which Rogier would
endow
his people,
he reduces, like Rogier, the rich detail of their en\
ironing world. Expressions are distant, and
when
melancholy, are so in the manner of faces grown set
after they have long discounted any feeling. This
shows up most extraordinarily when the themes
are violent, such as the
(fig.
380).
up on
While the
Martyrdom ofSainI ErcLsmus
saint's entrails are
being wound
a windlass (following the typical
medieval
hoiTor fantasy) spectators contemplate this with
DiKK BuLTb. John the Baptist
io^.
of Christ. Panel, 20" x 15".
Wittelsbacher Ausgleichsfonds,
m
Herald
Munich
remote
rigidity,
merely turning necks and arms
with a
stiffness
that seems as mechanical as the
martyrdom. Painting examples of
\ain's
law court
Brussels, in a lost
a
justice for
condemned man beheaded and then
the
emperor by
Lou-
theme Rogier had painted in
work-'). Bouts' two panels show
(a
his
widow, who
the appeal to
in a trial by fire
proves her husband's innocence and the guilt of the
emperor's wife
all this
(fig.
381).
Gangling courtiers watch
with intelligent impassivity, and the reality
of each person and thing
Such
is
overwhelmingly credible.
a grasp of realism
is
easier for us in a Ijist
Sujjprr (1464-68), -2 arranged unusually around a
squarish table so that the figures are farther from
each other.
and
381.
.As a result
a ritual effect like
the spate
Dirk Bouts. Tht Appeal of the
Panel, io'7 1/2" x 5'!
1
is
without pressures,
Ouwaiers can emerge, highly
Countiss.
1/2".
Musics Royaux des Beaux-Arts.
Brussels
:U)7
suitable to this altarpiece
whose four side panels also
refer separately to the
sacrament of
communion
(colorplate 47). This approach also strengthens the
environmental imagery,
light,
interior structure,
and, most remarkably, landscape. In three of the
sacramental scenes, where .Abraham greets Melchizedek. an angel feeds Elijah, and the Israelites gather
manna, the rich-robed stiff-jointed people, irregularly distant from each other, are steeped in a lovely
deep-clouded area of immense meadows. In John
Baplisl as Herald of Christ
lite
(fig.
382) the religious
purpose helps the landscape invention. John with
the kneeling donor on one side of a river points out
Christ on the other; John and donor gaze across the
expanse, the river gleams, and Christ never sees
them.
The
truth about the openness of the world
is
stimulated in an original way, and yields such a concentrated portrayal that
pressing. In the
Way
it
becomes psychologically
to Paradise panels-^ isolated
sinners are caught in rocks, while angels lead saved
away from us toward the fountain of
souls
life in
the middle distance.
Bouts' approach dominated a naiTow group of
voiinger
artists,
One
sons.
sometimes identified with
made
of them
reducing the heads
these forms
his
still
two
drier,
to devotional icons; the other's
dewy fresh landscapes that one
became more famous than any of Bouts' originals:
altarpieces have such
the so-called Pearl of Brabatil. Its invention of Saint
Christopher wading through a deep stream at sunset
(fig.
383) helped to stimulate the emergence of en-
tirely
uninhabited landscapes shortly after 1500.
Dirk Bolts THE Vol NGER ',.
St. Chrislopher, right wing of Pearl of
Brabant .\ltarpiece [Adoration ofthi Magi
triptych). Panel, 25"^ 11". Altc Pinakothek.
383.
Munich
17.
Hugo van
Joos van Gent;
Generally in this epoch the distinguished painters
all
—
belong to different towns
Bruges,
Campin
to
^Jan
Toumai, Rogier
Bouts to Louvain; what they stimulate
explorations, as
tlie
308
.Middle Ages.
The
to Brussels,
is
not further
local schools
grew
but a fixed tradition,
as in
happened when
in Florence or Ferrara,
van Eyck to
partial exception
is
Ghent,
der Goes
wliich housed two remarkable artists almost simul-
taneously for very short careers, after which both
under unusual circumstances.
Joos van Gent (docs. 1460-KI.1479) arrived
from .Antwerp, lived in Ghent from 1464 to
about 468 and matured his art there, but soon went
left
1
off to Italy,
and
in 1473
became
a court painter to
i
CoNRAD WiTZ. The Miraculom
coLORPLATE
45.
Musee d'Art
et d'Histoire,
Geneva
Draft of Fishes, center panel of altarpiccc. 1444. 52' ^ 60"
COLORPLATE
46.
RoGiER VAN DER Weydex. DeposHion from
the Cross.
C.1440. Panel, 7'3" x 8'7".
The Prado, Madrid
HuGO VAN DER
COLORPLATE
48.
8'4" X 9'i
Uffizi Galler\-, Florence
I
".
GoES. Adoration of the Shepherds, center panel of Portinari Altarpiece. 0.1480.
Duke
Frederick in L'rbiiio. Already in
L'rbino he arranged to paint the
llie
Apostlcf, for a pious lay society
meaning of the Mass
greatest work,
it
is
oj
devoted to the
time
who never
Ghent
in the
is
The
land-
intensely bright,
with an Eyckian glitter in the costumes, and Joos
regular vehicle. But he usually isolates them sharply
painted on a small
.^s
depth gradually.
seems to have made exotic and piquant people a
Though
this
is
Not
scale.
only the pictures but the people in them are big.
and move in broad sweeping rhythms in a world of
geometric balances,
his figures into
altered fiom what he had
384).
done before, and makes us realize that Joos had
been drawing toward Italian waysalready. Ofcourse,
his figures are Rogierian, wir> and forceful in a
plain world, but he seems to be the only Fleming of
his
moves
scape in his early Cuicifixion''-*
his
(fig.
little
1472 in
Communion
Jan van Eyck had done
Adoration of the
Lamb
(see
fig.
in
357),
Joos probes depth, but unlike anvone before, he
Joos VAN Gent. The Communion of the
Ducal Palace. Urbino
384.
Apostles.
in a
deep giay atmosphere. Thus Joos, like Bouts, is
own variant on the now accepted
able to work his
tradition.
Hugo van
der Goes (docs, from I4(i7-d.i482)
becomes noticeable about the time of Joos' departure
from Ghent. He.was a great success there, decorated
the town for festivals, and painted elaborate works.
Some, with the most surprising motifs, are lost, such
as a .Nativity b\ night and Jacob and Rachel meeting
in a vast meadow.-'" .At the
peak of his success he
1472-74. Panel, g'a" x io'6". Galleria Nazionale delle
Marrhe
'C'
%<>.%
iiS.
c'\
^
\
385.
Hugo van der
Goes.
The Temptation of Adam and Eve.
Panel, 13" x 9".
Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vie
retired to a cloister, but not fully; his superior, im-
pressed by his fame, anaiiged for important visitors
and
for his
work.
The
Hugo was
implication that
torn about what he should do seems confirmed
by his next accusing himself of being
a
damned
sinner and trying to "do himself an injury." After a
period in this condition he subsided into humility
but soon died. Today
this
mental
The
385)
is
it is
impossible to
stress in his sixteen or so
early
Temptalion
oj
resist
seeing
surviving works.
Adam and Eve
(fig.
an astonishing token not of Rogierian but of
Eyckian realism.
The two
figures
have a concen-
makes them not nude but
naked. An Adoration of llir Magi-^ works with a
similar intensity on Italian methods; the perspective
and broad modeling result in Hugo's calmest work.
trated surface reality that
Through such
386.
Hugo van der
Goes.
Deallt of the Virgin.
Panel, 58" x 48".
Groeninge Museum, Bruges
314
imitations he arrives at his
own
style
famous
in the
in
a
Bruges and shipped in
an enormous impact on
(M),
concentrating on realizing
itself,
Florentine banker living
pressure to reality. In his
last
ahaipiece (colorplate
Poitiiiaii
painted to the order of
148;) to Italy,
artists. It
is
Rogierian than anything previous in
figures, flying, clutching, or staring,
time more pressingly Eyckian
in things,
from flowerpots
where
more
its
and
had
it
pressingly
thin, tense
at the
in the glare
same
of reality
to brocades, giving the
but
share the
all
works, such as the
Adoration of the Shepherds-'' and the Death of the
Virgin
in
(fig.
Hugo
386),
pulls the figures together
gland high-pitched choruses, but he pushes
realism so
far,
with a cutting
The
a personal style.
line, that
it
turns into
color grows thin too, and the
resulting sculptural effect of the groups of people
super-reality of a floodlit sharp-focus photograph
tends to discard their reference to space, which
and more. .All
sion between
treated as a
this
on
and
is
line
a big scale, so that the ten-
surface, plane
There
has a shrill force.
and depth,
unity; indeed,
little
is
figures tend to be of oddly different sizes, each
Geertgen
18.
By 480, when every
1
able
modern
group
tot Sint Jans;
town had its own repeat-
Fleniisii
type of painting, the strongest
young
personality was in a remote province. Geertgen
Sint Jans (no exact records), literally
John's,
is
Jeny
tot
at Saint
so called because he was a lay brother at
the Hospital of .Saint
John
Haarlem; he worked
in
there and for other local churches.
Presumably
learning from Ouwater, he develops his style further;
his figures, plotted
with elaborate vivacity in a wide
space, are an unforgettable type of
smooth
simplifi-
does
is
extreme, but he steadily changes from having
many external
ment which he
unusual and complicated symbolism, which
iriakes visually
.\
surviving panel from his huge destroyed a Itarpiece
for Saint John's
(fig. ;i87),
shows the findingof the
saint's relics
and hence the connnunity of Hospitalers
logically (not in space or time, but in association of
ideas)
watch from a
group
Dutch
portrait of
little
farther back, the
art. It is typical that a
It
form taken b)
does so again in the superficially
very different Salivily at night
inspired by
in
space relation between
parts of the painting stimulates the
this novelty.
first
members of an organization
Van der Goes;
(fig.
light
388), pjerhaps
from the
Hoh
C^hild glows into the black world, violently striking
cylindrical forms partially eaten
away by shadow.
Carrying the Cross,-^
the Christ
Christ streaming with blood from
and the Madonna
many tiny wounds,
0/ t/ie Rosary,^^ a tiny petal-like
image made of an astonishing number of minute
Geertgen
objects.
is
often
teenth-century Georges de
cial
compared to the sevenTour, another provin-
la
genius whose complexity of religious culture
is
resolved in abstracted simplified shapes and lighting.
faithfully than
dling of its religious themes, as Ouw'ater's had been.
he
simple by his talent for e.xposition.
I'hese include
d.i4g4),
original in the han-
narrow suie-
Geertgen's few nonspatial works are the ones with
impressed him. His imagery
is
interests to a single
has mastered absolutely.
Memling
column with an egglike head. But he
had also traveled to great cities and was an urbane
person; Van der Goes' compositions and perhaps
Joos van Gent's spatial constructions seem to have
cation, a shiny
is
minor inconsistency. Everything Hugo
But
more typical artist of the generation
Hans Memling (docs, from 1465who reflected Rogiers figure style more
a
1480-1500
is
any of the painters so
In this fidelity he
is
like a
but he managed to be
far
mentioned.
number of minor
a sort
artists,
of supreme average, a
major presenter of the standard. Born
in Germany,
Memling may have been working in Rogier's shop
when Rogier was painting his symmetrical Adoration of the Magi for Cologne at the end of his life
(see fig. 377). .Memling retains the symmetry in
his many altarpieces for Bruges (fig. 389). He also
traces Rogier's figures so that they lose elasticity
and become
soft,
well
washed and dressed
for feasts,
smiling ingratiatingly in parklike landscapes. The
painting
is
technically splendid, polished
anced, placid and neat.
.•\iigelico,
and
bal-
Like LcKhner and Fra
Memling appealed
to the \'ictorian re-
:U;
387-
Geertgen TOT SintJa
The Burning of the Bones of
John
the Baptist.
Panel, 67 3/4"
54 3/4".
Kunsthistorisches
Vienna
discoverers of the early Renaissance as a "sweet
primitive," clean
and simple and thus uncorrupted,
but sugared and easy
to like.
Besides his casket for
the relics of Saint Ursula (i48g),'"'coveredallaround
with bright
little
scenes from her legend like
manu-
sunny rendering of Eyckian
Memliiig's most distinctive works are his
script pages, with a
detail,
portraits
(fig.
390).
Handsome
classical
features,
unlike those of his triuhful predecessors, are placed
before open landscapes, an original system that was
much liked and added light to the faces. But though
Memling was very successful, he was not remembered
long or much imitated after his death.
388.
Geertgen TOT SiNT Jans.
X 10".
Nativity. Panel, 13"
National Gallery, London
316
Museum,
389.
St.
Ha.\s Memling.
Christopher Altarpiecc, center panel of
triptych. 1484.
48"x6o".
Groeninge Museuin, Bruges
Hans Memling. Man
390.
with a Coin.
1
" x 9".
Vellum on panel,
Mus^e Royal des Beaux-Arts, Antwerp
1
Jean Fouquet
19.
The
collapse of France, symbolized by the defeat at
Agincourt (1415), began to be reversed only by a
later generation symbolized by Joan of .Arc (military
career 1429-31). It re-emerges with a changed character
when
the
est capital at
young King Charles \ll.
in his
mod-
Bourges, replaces his feudal lords with
a civil ser\ ice of commoners, following the
example
of the dukes of Burgundy. The merchant and financier Jacques
Coeur, drawn into government
second career,
is
the most important of these. As his
activity illustrates the creation of a pattern that
seems ordinary, his house
pioneer
among
city
in
Bourges
style
it
(fig.
391)
now
is
a
is
a
fig.
344), in
Gothic stone structure
being used for dwelling purposes, so that carved
ornament runs over
flat
ceilings
and frames thin
curtain walls in the style that traditional architects
call
"Tudor Gothic."
in its portrait sculptures
in
It
even echoes Poitiers
above eye
level,
but differs
having more but smaller rooms, urban luxury,
and sophisticated division of functions counterbalanced bv limited ground area. These developments
were gradual, but the surviving similar houses
lier
ear-
than this are rural, hence looser in plan, and
much
less
ambitious in
size.
(The
best
example of
these seems to be the house of William Grevel, at
his
death in 1401 the richest wool merchant in Eng-
land, at C:hipping
Campden. then an important
market.)
The
mansions. Like the duke of
Berry's earlier castle at Poitiers (see
masonry and
as a
used to
talented painter of this court. Jean Fou-
quet (docs. 1462-1477),
is
also within a traditional
vehicle, being almost the last
major painter in Eu-
rope to specialize in book illustration, but his stvle
is
Eyckian and particularly like Petrus Chrisius.
Hisearliest work, a fiercelv realistic panel portrait of
;h:
Charles VII
(fig.
wide-mouthed and
392),
flabby-
skinned, closely reflects Christus' recent portraits in
smoothing down Eyckian
spatial anecdotes in favor of a
same
an undetailed
reality to
and goes further by eliminating Christus'
cylinder,
style,
framing curtain.
massive and with graphic
Madonna
The
facial individ-
been
Agnes Sorel
(fig. 393), and in a big Piela for a church,^' whose
columnar forms at irregular angles and in strong
light are a rich variation on a treatment of the theme
by Christus. 3^ But the later portrait of Jouvenel des
uation, recurs in the
that has often
called a portrait of the king's mistress,
shown as a substantial
Van Eyck directly in its
Ursins,^^ the royal treasurer,
jowly bourgeois, reflects
small intimacies of texture. This has a preparatory
drawing
(final
Cardinal
like Jan van Eyck's of
showpiece in two colors of
and complete,
.\lbergati^''), a
chalk, 3^ perhaps the starting point for a French tra-
dition of portrait drawings in the sixteenth century.
Fouquet's manuscript painting
Evckian vein.
The crowd
is
scenes that
in this
wholly
the
fill
Book
of Hours of Etienne Chevalier, another royal treasurer,
and Fouquet's other manuscripts (colorplate
49) derive from the saints crossing the grass in the
Ghent
Courtyard, House of Jacques Coeur,
39 1Bourges. 1443-51. Height of main facade
(at left)
39'4"
numbers
altarpiece; vast
are unified in a
dancing, glinting light on robes and grass, so that
we
can visually manage the multitude and accept
its
movements. But
Fouquet introduces
a
surpris-
ing modification, probably the result of an Italian
trip about 1443; he had then learned perspective
and apparently decided, as Diirer did later, that it
was the solution to
buildings are
gelico,
all
much
who worked
Fouquet was
measured
there.
kinds of problems. Fouquet's
like
in
some painted by Fra An-
Rome
But the
at
about the time
clusters of people are
seem to be
and the geometric ab-
in perspective too, so that they
undergoing
a military drill,
straction of their regiments oddly penetrates the
easy naturalness of their Eyckian color.
more earnest
tive
research,
In even
Fouquet represents perspec-
diminution from center
to sides (as well as the
usual sort from front to back), and therefore shows
straight horizontal lines as curves; this system
comes
from Van Evck's and Christus' convex mirrors, the
39a.
Jean Fouquet.
King Charles VII.
Panel. 34"x28''.
The Louvre,
318
Paris
only type then manufactured, which show a similar
curved world
378).
A
(as in
Christus' SainI FAigius; see
Flemish studio trick
is
his tool to
fig.
impose
Florentine order on the cosmos. In devoting himself to these curiosities,
Fouquet
the victim of his
is
him
provincial isolation, which allowed
ate out of proportion
despite himself he
in
is
to exagger-
what he had learned. Yet
an
artist
of beautiful images
both the massive portraits and the crowd scenes
where, anticipating Memling's Saint Ihsula casket
he revives Van Eyck's microscopic
(see p. 316),
vi-
brancy with casual mastery.
393.
Jean Fouquet.
The Madonna of Etiennt
right panel of
Chevalier,
Melun Diptych.
36"X32".
Musee Royal des Beaux-Arts, Antwerp
Avignon and King Rene
20.
One
of the strangest but most effective of fifteenth-
years (where legend
century patrons was Rene (1409-1480), grandson of
that duke of Anjou who was one of King Charles
tonio; see p. 298),
Rene was
V's brothers.
fated, as a sort of caricature
makes him the teacher of Colanand after he lost that, to his
duchy of Provence, just before the Annunciation of
.\ix-en-Provence was painted (see
of late feudalism, to accumulate domains by dynastic
accidents; duchies ftom his older brother, his great-
uncle,
and
his father-in-law,
Naples willed by a cousin,
He
all
and the kingdom of
because none of them
them all in wars witii other claimants; but he was remembered in folk literature as
"the good King Rene of Anjou," and so, despite his
had
sons.
lost
weakness, was evidently not a failure as a ruler.
He
wrote romances, was an amateur painter, and a patron of painters by the score. His constant travels
match strikingly the spread of the Flemalle style.
As a young prisoner of war of tiie duke of Burgundy
in Dijon, iie
and
this
is
said to have studied painting avidly,
must have been Flemish;
Council of Basel
Conrad
VVitz;
in
1434 and
!ie
may
attended the
well have
from there he went to Naples
for
fig.
369).
Painting in Provence in Rene's later quieter
years develops
Fouquet
s
more emphatically the approach that
showed in a mild form,
larger paintings
provincial
geometric
Flemish realism;
it
sawn planks, which has
The
simplification
applied
to
attains a hard plainness like
a great
impact on twentieth-
Enguerrand
coming from northern
France, in 1454 painted near .\vignon a huge altarpiece of the Trinity crowning the \'ii-gin (fig. 394).
Its mixing of sizes is archaic, weighty divine figures
century eyes.
Qtianon
leading painter,
(docs. 1447-1461),
above, small souls in Heaven, and tiny ones in Hell
below.
The
figures built
surfaces are a richer mix, the large
up of prismatic stiff robes,
among enamel-smooth
met
ones skittering
fom
seas.
the small
hills
and
This same collection of approaches marks the
319
394-
Enguerrand Quarton.
Coronation of the Virgin.
1434. Panel, 6' X y'^".
Musee de
I'Hospice,
\'illeneuve-les- Avignon
395.
Enguerrand QyARTON(?).
Field.
Panel, 5'4"x y'^".
The Louvre,
Paris
famous Picta of Avignon
(fig.
395),
which may be by
Quarton and certainly shares his aesthetic. Its
greater, even shocking, power comes from its tragic
theme, which, here
both the
as elsewhere, affects
and our response.
artist
We are
likely to notice first
the angular design that makes Mary's face a cubist
disjointed scheme, and only later the Flemish so-
and the donor's
and staring eyes. The cubist compoactually less dominant here thati in the close-
phistication in the taut rib cage
work-worn
nent
ly
is
face
connected altarpiece from Boulboii.''^
Its
theme,
the symbols of the Passion, lends itself to a pattern
of geometric jigsaw-puzzle fragments strewn on a
flat
surface, each
one glaringly
real.
Nicolas Froment (docs. 1461-1479)
is
a lesser
The Flemish motif
native Proven(;al master.
of a
standing group in brocades gets a provincial translation
in
Raising of
his
I.azariis,^''
full
of jerky
movements and nutcracker giimaces. Froment's masterpiece is the Virgin in the Burning Bush (147576;
fig.
huge altarpiece that has two
396), a
layers
meaning (Moses sees the bush that burns Ijut is
unconsumed; Mary bears Christ but remains a
Virgin). The work includes vei^ frank portraits of
King Rene, who ordered it. and his skinny queen.
of
The whole
lier
work,
much
is
suaver in drawing than his ear-
to the point of
being
a persuasive dupli-
cate of a Bouts.
A more
elegant
simplification
of
Flemish
painting, like Fouquet's, was practiced at Rene's
other court, in .\njou, near the French king's.
Its
anonymous set of illustrations in
d'Amour Efiris {Heart
Captured by Love), a romance written by Rene
himself in 1457. It tells of courtly love and virtue
masterpiece
is
the
396.
Nicolas Fromlnt
The Virgin
in the
.
Burning Bush, center panel
of triptych, 1475-76. Height is's".
Cathedral of St. Sauveur, .\ix-en-Provence
the manuscript of Coeur
through personified qualities, like Love, Jealousy,
and
Sloth, in a tone of intellectual nostalgia for tales
of chivalry best
known
to us in
Edmund
Spenser's
Faerie
Qiieene written for the English court a
century
later.
The
illustrations thus quite naturally
reflect the International
styles of the
Gothic
at its subtlest, the
Boucicaut Master and the Limbourg
397.
H/arl and Desire at
the Fountain,
illuminated page from Coeur d'Amour ipris.
Vellum, page
1
1
"
y 8".
National I.ibrarv, Vienna
:V2
mixing ornamental grace with vivid hints
(fig. 397). A few scenes push this
brothers,
of fresh landscape
an astonishing point of originality,
interest to
a
sunrise with figures meditating on pale grass, and a
bedroom, creating
candlelit
2
moods with
sensitive
The Growing Role
1.
utter authority; only Bouts'
comparable
the
at
deep landscapes are
In general
time.
Coevr
the
Master belongs to the group, from Petrus Christus
on,
who
simplifs
Flemish figure imagery with a
structure of sharp gestures.
of Sculpture:
Hans Multscher
For generations alter the Dutchman Sluter had done
his
work
in France,
naturalistic
French sculptors repeated
power and
his
his tricks of soft, thick tex-
no
approach
ture, with individual brilliance at times but with
vocabulary change.
The
authority of his
was sufficient so that after
grant,
it
Juan de
la
Huerta
fifty
years a .Spanish immi-
(docs.
1437- 1462), retained
while working as the leading master in Dijon.
most iinpressive single echo
is
the lifesize
The
Entomb-
of Christ with six mourners, which the otherwise unknown Jean Michel and Georges de la
nieiil
Sonnette carved for a hospital chapel
(1451-54;
fig.
398).
It is
in
Tonnerre
like a theater tableau, with
Sluter's massive seriousness but plainer in form.
Italian .\iccol6 dell' .\rca
The
probably derives from
this
far
more
exploited
experience of Holland and
varied.
is
modified the standard Late Gothic
it
mechanical curves by toughening and simplifying
the forms a
little,
Germany was
The most important
base being
ultimately ,\ndre Beaune\eu's work
so that the curving
movement
of
the whole patterned body has dramatic expressiveness, like a gesture. In
quantity the period
is
con-
spicuous for the increase of independent statues
unrelated to architecture.
They include
Pieta gioups of the dead Christ
and votive Madonnas. The
the
many
on Mary's knees,
latter,
tional linear decorations based
with their tradi-
on graceful bending
were called the "beautiful Madonnas" in
Germany, and rarely emerge from the type, .\dven-
folds,
turousness seems a
little
more marked
in occasional
works of architectural sculpture. Johannes Junge, a
talented carver in Liibeck (docs. 1406-1428), adds
to the sweet face
phase of the Sluter tradition.
The
around 1370;
produced
for a
and swirling drapery of his
Virgin,
church location, a sharp leaning of
the whole body to the right, giving her a positive
identity
(fig.
399). Master
Hartmann
in L"lm (docs.
Jea.n Michel and
Georges de la Sonnette
398.
Entombmenl of Christ. 1451-54.
Stone, 4'3" X i I'lo".
Cathedral. Tnnnerre
msmaM
-
W
'-'
-
m
,b >^B''.
400.
St.
i
399.
Johannes Jl'NGE.
Master Hartmann.
Martin.
Sandstone, height s'y".
Cathedral, Ulm
Virgin.
Stone, height 41".
St.
Annen-Museum, Liibeck
401.
Madonna. 1430.
Wood, height 67".
St. Sebald. Nuremberg
Tomb of Archbishop Konrad
von Daun. Stone, 8'io' x 4'5'.
402.
Cathedral. Mainz
1417-1430)
sets
Saint Martin
Madonna
beside a conventional
who
is
a materially solid
burgher
a
(fig.
400). As he turns to cut off part of his cloak, illus-
trating his legend, he does not
show ornamental
folds but a personal seriousness exactly parallel to
Hartmanns work is
own collaboration with a sculp-
the Master of Flemalle. Indeed,
as early as Flemalle's
tor with similar results (see p. 295). Spatial boldness,
instead,
marks the carved
Cathedral tower.
They
sit
figures of the Strasbourg
on the parapet and look
up, gauging the height to the top as
not so
much detached
counterpoint
witii
conventional.
it.
we
do; they are
fi-om the architecture as in
But the actual carving
is
fairly
An accommodation between
old
Gothic habits and Flemish materialisin seems to
have been worked out in such Madonnas
Saint Sebald in
Nuremberg
plump matronly
403.
St. Christopher.
Stone, height
St.
Sebald,
i
144
r6".
Nuremberg
404.
Hans MfLTscHER.
Christ as the
Man
oj Sorrows.
1429. Sandstone, height 5'6".
Cathedral.
324
Ulm
face
(1430;
fig.
as that at
401),
whose
presides over an irregular
cascade of flowing folds. Less accommodating,
tlie
masterpiece indeed of these scattered experiments,
(docs. i427-d.i467). In his
youth he was a vigorous
painter of crowd scenes in squarish
Flemallian
tomb of Archbishop Daiin of Mainz (d.i4;<4;
402), where rich but jumpy folds in the robe
where the blocky people thrust energetically
against each other, less abstract than most of the
and tlie deep
shadow patches all over the relief surface, producing
an expressive stress parallel to the first works of
painters in the Flemalle vein. In sculpture his full
Rogier van der VVeyden. Similar power emerges
us with an intense gaze.
is
the
fig.
refer to the twisted wrinkles in the face
fiom
Nuremberg
spaces,
power appears
404), free
in his standing suffering Christ
(fig.
from Gothic formulations, leaning out
The
[)ossibilities
to
of human
fig.
expressiveness and environmental space are being
403), holding a serpentine vertical stick that insists
grasped simultaneously, both extending a single
on
gesture in which the figure points to his wound.
a Saiitl Christo(>her in
its
waist,
(1442;
body angled at the
marked by the stretchrobe. The whole form
contrast with the heavy
its
active pull further
ing of the
soft, Sluter-like
dynamic splintering of tragic weight.
.\11 these single works in Germany are related
states a
to a leading personality,
Hans Multscher
in L'lm
From about
who have
1460, sculptors
original per-
more concentrated in Germany than
anywhere else. They work in the context of the
sonal styles are
spreading influence of Rogier van der VVeyden,
wiping out the
last traces
among
linear robes
of the language of curvi-
carvers.
Bernt Notke (docs. i467-d.i509) late in
traveled from his
home
in
life
Liibeck near the Baltic
Sea to Stockholm, where his eight-foot-long masterpiece, Sainl
George and I he Dragon (1488;
fig.
405),
ordered to commemorate a military victors
by
Swedes over Danes, functions
an
is
the
where
saints with
(The nearby
work of an
in
its
church
like
statue of the rescued princess
assistant.)
Man and
horse are
Rogierian in their thin, fierce pressure, but are
overwhelmed with decoration in the armor and the
dragon, whose scales are made of real deer antlers,
and so seem to revert to the International Ciotliic
being
trick of
be elegant.
bronze
realistic
The whole
Sai)ii
whenever nature chances
to
follows a tradition seen in a
George of 1373
in Prague.-'*' .All this is
405.
Si.
Bernt Notke.
George and the Dragon. 1488.
Painted wood, height
from pedestal
10',
width
Siorkyrka, Stockholm
8'.
more
smooth broad
tired expressions stand in robes spreading
in thick folds.
On
a small scale
passive
and
outward
facc-s
he seems to parallel
Rogier van der Wevden's evolution.
Xicolaus Gerhaert and Other Sculptors
22.
altar.
Multscher's later works withdraw into
dignity,
4o6.
NicOLAUs Gerhaert.
Self-portrait.
Red sandstone, height 7 3/8".
Mus^e de la Ville. Strasbourg
1
provincial exaggeration
and
lag,
clashing with the
extraordinary mastery of space, in which the huge
active form pierced by holes dominates its environ-
ment dynamically.
A more urbane
407.
N'icoLAVs Gerhaert.
Tomb
of
Emperor Frederick
III.
Begun
1469.
Marble, 9'io"X5'5".
variant on Rogier
is
Nicolaus
Cathedral, Vienna
Gerhaert (docs. 1462-d. 1473), whose few but brilliant works make him the chief founder of German
Renaissance sculpture.
Leyden
He
apparently came from
in Holland, but did
most of
his
work
Strasbourg (then a German-speaking city of the
pire).
He uses sharp bending line,
in
Em-
but in a new way.
not incised into a surface but tracing the outermost
projection of a volume, like the contour of a mountain range.
To
this taut twisting line
of his main
respond ornamental areas swarming
near the frames and suggesting a harmonious re-
figures there
lation of the live
and the decorative. And the
ir
tomb
slab,^" typically
much
higher in relief than
previous ones, already mature in the clots of
cate
volume peaked by
line.
two disjunctive naturalistic textures,
and wood bark, capped by a crown of thorns
that expands with the woven decorative richness of
a fan vault. Still more striking are the busts for
(
1
467)'"' relates
flesh
Strasbourg town hall (1464;
fig.
look out from windows but
regular volumes of the figures send out centrifugal
to
probes into the space, which also has a
frames. This illusionistic idea
in his sculpture.
326
His
first
p>ositive role
known work
(1462)
is
a
intri-
His colossal Crucifix
406), figures placed
now without
is
found
their
earlier in
the house of Jacques Coeiir, and reverts eventually
such
to
Charles
busts
fourteenthTlin,
sixteenth centuries).
A
center of trade routes from
and the Netherlands, and a metal manufacturing city which did much to develop the clock,
Nuremberg is in east central Germany, far from
Italy
the traditional leading centers, except Prague.
Its
painting was dominated by the usual local
imitators of Rogier van der VVeyden, the sophisticat-
ed Hans Pleydenwurff (docs. i4-,7-d.i472) and the
cruder, prolific
But there
is
Michael Wolgemut (1434-1519)-
a surprising secondary tradition, led by
Tucher .\ltarpiece (fig.
whose patrons were the most prominent family.
His figures are clumsy and inarticulate, but he
>trains to make them muscular and solid, with crowd
the unusual Master of the
419),
pressures that
show an admiration
for the .Master of
Flemalle which parallels Hans .Multscher's, that
for sculpture-oriented painting.
persists in a small
way
later in
is.
This rougher vein
Bamberg and
VV'iirz-
burg, two lesser towns of the region, and in the
bumpy
wcxDden people painted by Jan Polack (docs.
1482-d. 15 19) in what was then the minor city of
.Munich. In Bamberg we are shown narratives of
blood and torture, with figures attacking each other
crudely, but with rich implications for sculpture.^"
419.
i
2"
Church of Our Ladv. Nuremberg
"<
Nuremberg (see figs.
plump Madonna at Saint
.\nd the earlier sculptures in
Resurrection, right side of center
panel of Tucher Altarpiece. 69
43"
401, 403), the informally
Sebald and the twisting, burdened
Saitil
Christo-
pher of 1442, had implied the most distinctive style
of any German city, roughly vigorous, with irregular
strong shapes and physical impact.
This then becomes the
style of a great master,
Veit Stoss (docs. i477-d.i533).
He
left
Nuremberg
dominance of the other
tradition, and went to Cracow in Poland. For the
German church there he produced his first masterto practice
334
it,
reflecting the
Veit Stoss. Dtath of tht
Marv, Cracow
420.
St.
piece (1477-89;
fig.
center panel ofaltarpiece
Virgin,
420), the hugestofall the
wood-
en altarpieces, forty feet by thirty-five. It is not the
usual series of enthroned saints but an asymmetrical
event, the death of the Virgin; she is surrounded by
the apostles, big lumbering
men
trying to help. In
general this matches the trend of the moment
(ierhaerts spatial incisiveness slowed down by the
dignity of Multscher
—but
it
is
overwhelmingly
more powerful in weight and life than all other
candidates. Only Pacher competes, and Stoss, like
lower portion
Stoss
a
.
Painted wood, about I3'4"
1477-
might be called not
a
polychrome sculptor but
engravings, rough echoes of Schongauer.
He continued
to
have a
difficult life after re-
turning to Nuremberg; he was convicted of forging
document and branded on both cheeks.
Pardoned by the emperor, he carved two more masterpieces at the end of his life. The Annuiicialioii
(1517-18; fig. 421) consists of two statues inside an
a financial
immense wreath,
the whole suspended in the air
from the vault of .Saint Lorenz;
molded naturalism. (But he uses little ornament and
no gilding.) The small side panels with figures and
as a variation
that the color in
them
relief, as if
creates an
sculptural and pictorial energies.
pressed
odd
The
flat,
so
conflict of
idea that
18'.
three'
Notke's
Stiiiit
on
a
wooden
George; see
fig.
it
405).
ous between the carved and the
work wTeath offen an
effect.
might be regarded
altarpiece (like Bernt
It
flat,
too
is
ambigu-
since the open-
essentiallv two-dimensional
His altarpiece of the X'irgin (1320-23)*"
is
'^^^j
still
asymmetrical but quieter, even
classical in its
simple cylindrical shapes, under the influence of
talents like Peter \'ischer and Diirer.
Only Nuremberg at this time produced sculpin media other than wood. Adam Krafft, a
younger
tors
stoneworker (docs. 1490-d. 1509), began by copying
a painting,
and
later
shows
a very belated derivation
from the routine types of the Parler workshop, once
the dominant producer of stone figures in the region
and without a successor in the interim (see p. 285).
But
as a
craftsman, in the
new
city self-consciously
led bv skilled shopowners (such as the shoemaker-
423.
.\dam Krafft. The Weighmaster
,
relief
over the door of the Municipal Weighing
House, Nuremberg. 1497. Stone, width 511"
42 1
Veit Stoss.
Annunciation. 151 7-18.
Painted wood, 12'2'x io'6"
St.
Lorenz, Nuremberg
422.
Adam Krafft.
Self-portrait,
from Sacramental Shrine. 1493-96.
Sandstone, height 35".
St.
Lorenz, Nuremberg
.
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ri-'.
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1^
COLORPLATE
49.
Jean Fouqlet.
Till Fall
ojjeiuho. illuminatid page in Joscphus' AnltqutUi Judaiqtus. c.1470.
V'cllum, ^^" y 12". Bibliotheque Nationalc. Paris
COLORPLATE 50. MiCHAEL Pacher. High Altar, with Coronation of the
Painted and gilded wood, I2'9"x lo'g". Church, St. Wolfgang
Virgin.
1471-81
coi.ORPLATE 51.
Matthias Grunewald.
center panel of Isenheim AUarpiece
(first
view). 1515. 9'io"x lo'g".
Unlerlinden
Museum, Coimar
Crucifix
COLORPLATE 52. Matthias Grunewald. ResurrectioTi,
right wing of Isenheim Altarpiece (second view).
1515. Panel, 9'io"X5'4".
Unterlinden Museum, Colmar
425.
Si.
Peter Vischer.
Thaddrus, from the
tomb of St. Sebald.
1508-19. Bronze,
height about 36".
St.
Sebald,
426.
King
Peter Vischer.
424,
Man Breaking a Stick of Wood. 1490.
Bronze, height 14". National Museum,
Nuremberg
Peter Vischer.
.Arthur,
from the
tomb of Emperor
Maximilian. 1513.
Bronze, lifesize.
Munich
Hofkirche, Innsbruck
poet
Hans
Sachs), Krafft tan suddenly evoke the
early capitalist tone of his enviroinTient. His sacra-
mental shrine in Saint Lorenz (1493-96) is a pure
Flamboyant Gothic pinnacle filled with Parler-like
figures,
but the base
stumpy
figures
(fig.
still,
who
is
carried
on the shoulders of
and his helpers
are the artist
422), skilled laborers in their aprons
though
be sure, types like Parler's portraits.
to
The
carving over the door of the municipal weighing
house ('497; fig- 423) is a giaphic scene of a weighmaster physically establishing a just price for some
goods and a buyer accepting
tion of
art
what
is
it,
an implicit defini-
postulated by Renaissance cities and
from Giotto on.
While exploiting nearby tin and copper mines,
also produced the first great bronze
sculptor of the northern Renaissance. (There were
Nuremberg
earlier individual works.) Peter Vi.scher the Elder
(docs. i487-d.i529), seeking to secure tlie big
com-
mission for the shrine at the tomb of Saint Sebald,
presented as a
test
one knee (1490;
piece a small figure of a
fig.
424).
This
is
man on
genre as vivid
as
his friend Krafft's self-portrait,
and
like
it
implies
supporting something on a shoulder, but of a
ent style.
It
differ-
translates bodily naturalism into a
com-
positional rhythm, going from prose reality to the
intense order of rhyme, which
Flemish but
Italian.
And just
means
that
it
is
not
then the independent
cal cylinders,
with regular horizontal
folds, support-
ing faces that are classical in their openness; this
approach
as Pietro
is
a masterly
Lombardo
revolutionary, and
pieces
its
illustrated by
is
reworking from such stimuli
(see p. 131). In
Germany
it
was
capacity to yield antholog\
two big bronzes of Emperor
King
small bronze was developing in Padua, near Venice,
Maximilian's
where .Nuremberg merchants were always to be
found (see p. 186). When, after a career on smaller
(1513;
emperor's Innsbruck mausoleum, perhaps using a
tombs, Vischer did begin the Saint Sebald shrine
design of Diirer's
(1507), he surrounded
the simplest dignity
26.
it
(fig.
who stand with
They are clear verti-
with saints
425).
fig.
ancestors,
including
.\rtlun
426), that Vischer contributed to
—two
in
a
tlie
procession of royal
forebears that are the overgrown descendents of
Sinter's
mourners.
Diirer
Albrecht Diirer of Nuremberg (1471-1528), though
apprenticed to Michael Wolgemut, hardly relates
at all to
of
German
older
He
painting.
is
a
product
printmaking and of the special Nuremberg
its
achievements in sculpture. Wolgemut's most
markable
was to be the
act
first
re-
painter to design
woodcuts, upgrading them from their cheap tradition.
His apprentice quickly learned the
earned a living
as
an illustrator
skill,
for publishers
and
when
he made his
first
Rhine
His designs, cut in the woodblock by
cities.
trip away, at twenty-one, to the
other craftsmen, have the traditional
flat stiffness.
far more
Hausbuch Master,
which he echoed in his own first engravings, and
by Schongauer, whom he adopted as a model for
But the trip
also
confronted him with the
sophisticated metal prints by the
impeccable technique and the Rogierian vocabulary of figure action.
The
result
is
piece, the AfKJcalypse series (1498;
his first masterfig.
427),
one of
the world's unforgettable sequences of images.
It
consists of fifteen woodcuts, full-page illustrations
of a book he published himself in Nuremberg. Like
no woodcuts before, they are executed with engraving-like suppleness and complexity. Such giandeur
427.
.Albrecht Dl'rer. Tht Four Hontmin,
from the Apocalypse
Woodcut, 15" /it"
342
series.
1498
and
active p>ower in Rogierian figures
The theme
before only in Veit Stoss.
vision of the
end of the world,
had appeared
is
.Saint
John's
matter of popular
a
anxiety near the magic date 1500. as works by
Si-
and Botticelli also attest (see figs. 150, 156).
The old problem of portraying the supernatural in
giiorelli
a realistic style
demands
beyond nature, but
as
that
still
we
react to the vision
be convinced of every
object. Diirer emphasizes the flatness of the black-
and-white pages with vertical compositions, but
makes the details rich. This Eyckian principle of
"imaginary gardens with real toads in them"
emplified
4^8.
Albrecht Dl
is
ex-
the famous Four Hnraemeti stretch
through unreal space so keenly that we run with
them, or in Saint John F.nting H>s Book, where
i
Watercolor. G'xg".
Kunsthalle,
when
Bremen
Diirer exploits literally the words in the text that
the angel's legs were 'like columns."
The
only available means Diirer had not yet
used and enlarged was the Italian clear order visible
he visited X'enice, and on
in Peter X'ischer. In 1495
the trip sketched the .Alps in watercolor
This
is
—costumes, flowers,
earliest
(fig.
428).
part of his pleasure in recording everything
fish
— but
it
also results in the
pure pictorial landscapes, optical unities
rather than topographic records. (But, as sketches,
they are meant to appear in public only as back-
giounds.)
.After
the visit his paintings and engrav-
ings develop his lifelong device of explicitly playing
Italian
and northern methods of rendering against
each other in one image. This
in
which Diirer adds
visible effects of
his
female nudes
most remarkable
to his
is
the
first
simple visual
of the ways
fertility the
plaiming and theorizing, .\mong
(a
is
favorite \'enetian
theme) the
the engraved Xemesis
(fig.
429),
shown standing in absolute profile, tlius geometric and classical, in a sk\
above an incrediblv detailed Eyckian panoramic
landscape: the world as experience, under a psychological law. The I'i.sion of SainI Eu.slace (fig.
430), tlie largest engraving he ever made, offers the
same doubleness in a profile of a classical horse
the allegory of retribution,
(which
is
Christian order) in a jungle landscape of
and forest (which
digm is .^(^atn and F.vr
cliff
429.
Albrecht DOrer.
.Semens.
Engraving, 13 < 9".
Metropolitan Museum of Art. N'ew York.
is
pagan disorder).
Its
para-
(1504), a study of anatomical
proportion like Pollaiuolos engraving of battling
"
Fletcher Fund. 1919
men, with a backdrop of foliage like his but far
more detailed and sharp. In the prolific years 130412 Diirer produced several sequences in woodcut
and engraving of the lives of Christ and Mars constantly inventive in dramatic motifs and sieadiU
,
:U3
431-
Albrecht DURER.
in His Study. 1514Engraving, 10" x 7"
Si.
Albrecht Durer.
430.
Tlu Vision of St. Eustace.
Engraving, 14";' 10".
Metropolitan
Museum
of Art,
New
York.
Fletcher Fund, 1919
more subtle
in
working
me-
light into the linear
dium. White areas no longer contrast with black
borders, the sinface becomes instead a continuous
net of lines of varying density, and thus moves from
an early Renaissance to a High Renaissance
torial
style,
These are
also the years of his
paintings, an altarpiece^'
on
a
most ambitious
second trip
in 1506 (where the artists treated
est
pic-
without diminishing crisp precision.
him
to
Venice
as the great-
of printmakers but did not accept his painting),
and
a lost
citizen
manv
Assumption of the Virgin (1509)^^
of Frankfurt,
known
best
needle-fine preparatory diawings for
432.
it
in-
Albrecht Durer.
Melencolia
I.
Engraving,
344
for a
today because
15 14.
9"x6
1/2"
Jerome
eluded one for the hands of a kneeling apostle. This
has
now become
sentimentally isolated and famous
Praying Hands," as if it had no context.
Three famous engravings of 1513-14 mark
the peak of Diirer's technical mastery and his fertile
collision of local styles. In Knight Death, and De-oil
the knight, in clear profile and thus clear in his
ideal aims, ignores the shadowy monsters in the
forest about him. They are fantastic amalgams of
texturally real details, with action more lifelike
than the knight's, but the focuses of light and design are able to make his abstract figure more solid
and convincing than the empirical ones. The imas "Diirer's
,
agery of a hero's internal self-confidence parallels
433.
.\lbrecht Durer.
Four Apostles. 1526.
Two
panels, each 85"
Alte Pinakothek,
Munich
-
30
Handbook of a Christian
Knight by Erasmus of Rotterdam,*^ who called for
the recently published
personal rational virtue as a response to the world's
corruption.
life styles as
(fig.
the
The
other two engravings also have
their themes. Saint
Jerome
in
His Study
431) reports the balance and contentment of
life
of the
mind through
Eyckian room, extraordinarily
the thinker in his
warm
with sunlit
and worn wood, insistently exact in perspective. To this the complement is Melencolia I
(fig. 432), a title alluding to the medieval and Renplaster
which assigned everyone
one of four temperaments; the melancholic was
connected with cold and At\ bodies and minds.
aissance medical concept
to
with depression and insanity, with work involving
geometry and construction (whose
shown), and sometimes with
artists.
figure carrying these references
is
we
tools
are
The
allegorical
as
awkwardly
trip to Flanders, has an architectonic simplicity less
like
Ruysdael than Van Gogh. Figures cease to exert
and stand as large bare forms, not in academic perfection like Fra Bartolommeo's but w'ith
pressure,
heavy and incapable as some of Michelangelo's,
and was perhaps suggested by his Jeremiah (see
the miiunial puic dignity that makes no claims,
colorplate 27). Melencolia lives in a definite but
said,
disturbing world, the converse of Saint Jerome's.
Last Supfjer (1523)
now working also on
human
books on
not even that one.
It is
but evangelical.
not puritanical, as has been
It is
illustrated by a
which omits the
woodcut
sacrificial
food
sacrifices
do
profxjrtion
not literally repeat Christ's sacrifice, and most
fa-
ly
mously by the Four .H)ostles (1526; fig. 433). Diirer
gave these paintings to his native city, with an in-
Diirer was
his
and perspective which, when successfulpublished in 1525 and 1528,^^ modified the
rules of his youthful
strict
Italian exfjerience to
approximations and options.
In
1515 the famous
monuments
tomb on which
a natural
to himself.
who wanted
full
elabo-
Like the huge bronze
X'ischer was at work, they have
emphasis on the Habsburg genealogv.
make books
Diirer was to
of woodcuts for him, a
form of glorification perhaps natural in the
literary
and typographical context of German humanism,
but none of the projects was finished when the emperor died in 1519. Diirer's
last
years glorify instead
the ideas of .Martin Luther and, with his genius for
making
intellectual attitudes visible, they
the
great Protestant art. Like
first
artists' late
powerful because they
is
the only great artist
important than
made
both possible, because of the printmak-
this
man
could only become famous enough
artist
called great
if his
work circulated elsewhere.
thus that he chose his
to
own
subjects,
a souvenir of a
modem
life.
imbedded
by his
skill
is
more
it
is
but
deeply
in familiar traditions, forcibly reoriented
and
p>ower.
Griinewald
wald
to
group of painters
in
German history:
Cranach, .Mtdorfer, Griinewald.
.\\\
Diirer,
had roots in
the area around Nuremberg (Franconia). though
some worked elsewhere. .Matthias Griinewald (docs.
503-d. 1528)
is
known through about
ten surviv-
an
is
today the beneficiary of our awed response
art that
distortion.
approached
\Ve err,
it
tragic violence
personal statement of tragedy. Renaissance
artists'
stylistic
it
languages represent the tragic, the happy,
and the comic
too,
with modulations of detail to
ar-
commitment
to
altarpiece (1515; colorplates 51, 52;
themes assigned by clients
is still
—
world famous
indeed, only part of
few other Renaissance
Avignon
I'ieth,
artists,
it
like the
is.
With
is
a
Master of
Pontormo, and Rosso, Griine-
we
artist's
to the distortion as if
Such
434).
if
were the
respond
ticulate each as called for.
fig.
through
should be repeated,
ing paintings, of which just one, the Isenheim
346
This
art than of the Renaissance,
the style in which he communicates
tion before, the years 1470-80 saw the births of the
the
which turn out
be conspicuously an intellectual's notations on
typical of
like ordinary generalizations.
be
work was mainly produced not for patrons, but
him as publisher; it was
the qualities of an intellectual's
they
to
Diirer's
offered to the public by
gieat
first
more
Gennan
far
other works. His being
ing tradition there, and necessan, because a Ger-
Following the constellation of sculptors one genera-
1
Yet in general Diirer
whose prints are
state-
drawing of boats on a beach,**
greatest
his
exist.
some other
seem disappointingly
27.
produce
with the clear-eyed absolute presence of Masaccio,
work, Diirer's turns to elementary
ments, so simple and declarative that at
A
view that church
scription about avoiding false prophets. 1 he\ stand
was engaged
artist
time by Emperor Maximilian,
rate
to illustrate Luther's
a
familiar to us to-
day in actors, architects, and others. In cases when
the artist's language was a rather unrealistic one,
and when
it
was being used for a painting on a
Matthias Grl-.newald.
434-
.Xalivil}-,
center panel of Isenheim Altarpiece (second viewj. 1315. g'lo" x lo'g
Unterlinden Museum, Colmar
tragic
theme, we react with suddenly greater warmth
seems to match our own idea of painting,
which calls for a tragic theme (if there is any human
because
it
theme) and an unrealistic
We
in private feeling.
work
to
have
a like
style,
and has
personal stimulus, and
style.
We should not consider the
we tend
work
in the
Renaissance
personalism in modern painters
like the
change
in
an actor
is
who becomes
somewhat
a star and
acts chiefly himself.
stimulus
readily take the Renaissance
to look less at the artist's nontragic
same
its
to
far
Griinewald was brought up in Wiirzburg. not
from .Nuremberg, and the area where works like
an anonymous Rothenburg altarpiece of 1494**
belong to the tendency to a crude and vehement an
(see p. 334) that precedes V'eit Stoss. In his
Mocking
but rather note
of Clniil^'' he retains its brutality of thick bodies
colliding in little or no space, but paints thick soft
our own inconsistency in denying to painters the
behavior we uke for granted in actors. The change
ones. Their fatty, succulent forms with a texture
artist insincere for
and giving them
accepting
all his clients'
a full expression,
themes,
High Renaissance people
instead of hard angular
347
fingers, fluttering in thin, vibrating clothes, will
434), and Griinewald's succulent world takes
the form of a jungle-thick rose garden beside a
a painter's reworking
chapel, whose Gothic tracery resembles climbing
like plastic emulsion, swollen cheeks,
become
his
trademark.
It is
and pudg\
(fig.
of the basic emphasis of Stoss and of Diirer's Apoc-
roses.
alypse series; Griinewald replaces incisive drawing
as
with strange, dazzling
light,
unhannonious
yet soft.
is
This
is
equally typical of Griinewald's fantasy,
the Resurrection next to
the innermost wings Saint
(colorplate 52). In
it
Anthony appears, once
In the Isenheim altarpiece raspberry reds press
tossed about in his temptation, attacked by fatty
against milky blues, the face of a fainting figure
slugs
is
miraculous light of
plastery, in the Resurrection a
mit, in a
chicken-broth tone dissolves the body.
The Isenheim
altarpiece was painted for a
a hermit. It
is
so splendid that
it
nastiness,
fir
forest of thickly silhouetted
and once
tlie
Her-
drooping
branches.
The
hospital chapel run by the monastic order of Saint
Anthony Abbot,
and other forms of sensual
calmly meditating, along with Saint Paul
artist's
smaller paintings are variants of
either this Crucifixion or this
Madonna. Though
not only shows the painted backs of the hinged
only paintings and drawings survive, he was also a
wings (on weekdays), and the open center and the
fronts of these wings (on Sundays), but is opened
suggest his concrete concern with materials, such
further (on great holidays) to show the innermost
as
and N'ikolaus Hagenauer's
carvings (see fig. 417). The weekday image is a Crucifixion (colorplate 51), painted with a more than
estant, he, like
surface, painted wings
professional
pigments.
hydraulic engineer, which seems to
Though
apparently an intense Prot-
Durer, worked for the cardinal of
Mainz, Luther's foremost antagonist; he lived obscurely in the
Mainz diocese,
in
two small towns
halfway between Wiirzburg and the Rhine. Griine-
Flemish medical realism of color; the dying Christ
has a green skin covered with sores, he claws with
wald
his fingers, plaster-faced Marv' faints, all against a
bodies, differing from the
black sky. But on Sundays in the \alivily a plump,
mental sensibility of light and color, and matched
smiling Mary holds a preciously smiling
28.
fat
Child
Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553) was born
sixty miles north of Nuremberg, but was in
Austria by the time he painted his
435).
an up-to-date explorer of expressive
many
human
others in experi-
in his
time perhaps only by Correggio.*
color
and landscape, without the
Cranach and Altdorfer
about
work
is
at thirty;
The
it
is
Crucifixion
we see Christ
first
surviving
impressively innovative
in profile
is
(fig.
given a quarter turn, and
and one
thief partly from the
back. This idea was perhaps developed from the
odd-angle
perspective
into .Austria by Pacher
of Mantegna,
and
at the
time
introduced
still
being
were being explored
at the
spatial
twists,
time by minor painters
Hans Fries in Switzerland [docs. 1480and Rueland Frueauf the Younger in .\ustria
in this area,
1518]
[docs.
1498-1545].) Cranach's early masterpiece,
the portrait of the X'iennese professor Cuspinian
(fig.
light
436), again plunges a traditional
and landscape. The
a natural response to
scheme into
sitter turns to look up,
being surrounded by wooded
sensuous base in nature for
and events
practiced there by his school. But Cranach removes
hills; this
the linear tightness that had been used to support
soon becomes stabilized
the logical persuasiveness of such compositions, and
today in the
High Renaissance concern for light,
pasty color, and landscape, so that we seem accidental arrivals on the scene. The shock effect is increas-
Cranach's early style lived on for some time
in his rough, emphatic woodcuts, but his painting
substitutes a
Danube
among
life
the artists grouped
school.
ed by the subject, since the Crucifixion has a ritual
in 1505 when he went to far-off
Wittenberg in northeast Germany, accepting the
tradition of fixity to an unusual degree. (Similar
elector of Saxonv's invitation to be court artist.
348
changed abruptly
He
LtCAS Cranach.
435.
The Crudfixion. 1503.
54"^ 43'Ahe Pinakothek, Munich
Panel,
lived
and prospered there
being mayor.
The
for
many
years,
elector's great protege
even
was Mar-
and Cranach was Luther's friend from
one of the three witnesses at his wedding.
tin Luther,
the start,
The Reformation
cut off
demand
for altarpieces,
which had been the mainstay of German
artists;
Luther did not oppose church paintings, only their
veneration, but Protestant churches largely excluded them. In rare cases new religious images appear,
such as "Suffer the little children to come unto me"
painted several times by Cranach, supporting the
Protestant emphasis
on man's
relation to
God
with-
out a mediating clergy. In general Cranach was the
first artist
to practice in a society interested only in
secular art.
The
result bears
ness to the poverty of
nineteenth centurv (that
an astonishing
commissioned
is,
excluding
art
like-
in
artists'
the
spon-
taneous work or display pieces for exhibitions).
becomes reduced
It
to specialties, notably [jortraits,
which Cranach's shop produced in vast numbers,
including many of Luther and the electors, the
latter
works mass-produced to the point of having
printed captions.
cluding
ters,
The
titillating
other specialty
is
erotic, in-
anecdotes (Lot and His Daugh-
Hercules and Omphale). but chieflv nudes
adorned only with necklaces, big
ent veils
(fig.
437)
—apparentlv
hats, or transpar-
here, as later, the
escape hatch for tight ethical codes
—and labeled
as
349
warnings of what
duced
in a hard,
to avoid.
These too are mass-pro-
mechanical
style
and
a simplified
formula, with a sinuous silhouette and stylish elongation that seem to derive from Parmigianino.
Albrecht Altdorfer (docs. i505-d.i538)
artist
of Regensburg, on the
is
Upper Danube,
the
sixty
miles south of Nuremberg. His starting poirn
is
Cranach's early sensuous landscape. Tiny paintings.
and drawings quickly scratched on colored paper
(a
technique invented shortly before by a local
printmaker), emphasize the
vironment on human
vital influence
of en-
Lovers seated in a
acts.
field,
a family of satyrs. Saint Nicholas calming a storm,
—
and Saint George slaying the dragon (fig. 438)
minute figure in a forest, the whole surface dominated by shimmering foliage all these people are
—
absorbed into the inviting, beautiful landscape.
Their moods, dreamy or
alert, reflect the
tone of
nature, so that they are basically similar to Giorgione's people in the 7'empesl (see colorplate 29).
Altdorfers Nntivity^^ shows a ruined brick house
437.
LbCAi Cra.nach.
Panel, 15"
x
It
10".
Stadel Institut, Frankfurt
in elaborate perspective,
made to vibrate luminously
bv the fine white lines of the mortar, and the Holy
Family crouching in a shadowy corner. This
fatalistic art,
is
a
not in the depressive sense but in an
organic and even elegant tone: strength
is
not in
individual purpose but in the lushness of inevitable
movement through
more architectural,
the seasons. Later this art grows
as in the
famous woodcut of the
Hdly Family by Ihe Fountain
of
436.
350
Lucas Cranach. Dr.
Cuspinian.
at
(fig.
439), a design
huge construction with the people squashed
the side. .Altdorfer was in fact the city architect
a
well as a long-time city council-
Panel, 23" x 18".
of Regensburg
Oskar Reinhart Collection, Winierthur
man). About 1520 he suddenly produced a series
of pure landscape etchings, with Alpine panoramas
(as
and
fir
trees as in his other works,
loosely scrawled
These seem
natural
line
to be the
first
but in
in
this
more
ilie
technique.
pure landscapes
in
West-
ern art that are autonomous objects and meain
be public;
as
to
Altdorfers few other etchings are
equally special cases, he was clearly aware of being
experimental here. (Etchings had been
about 1510, but these are the
is
first
in
made from
which the
style
iind Darnis, part of a set of ancient heroes
no
fighting, but
hundreds of
which are diagramed
for us
artists.
men move
ordered
There
is
in streams
by the direction of
thrust of their hundreds of glinting spears, like a
river
under the wild
From
sky.
a starling point
near Giorgione, .Altdorfer ends by anticipating the
human
herds of Bruegel.
Hans Leinberger
based on the technique; the earlier ones were
imitations of engravings.)
many
by the duke of Bavaria from
(docs. 1513-1530), the finest
sculptor in this generation of great painters, also
belongs to the
Danube
and style. Working in
Madonna images hav-
area
small towns, he produces
ing
mannered
artificial
life,
based on sharp ropy
rhythms and nervous two-dimensional silhouettes,
less
other sculpture than like an .Altdorfer
like
drawing. Far from being provincial, Leinberger
experimented with the new fashionable medium of
the small
effects are
bronze.
These
delicate
generation, Hans Backoffen
George in a Wood.
Parchmem on
.\lte
(d. 1519), a
tombsculp-
Albrecht Altdorfer.
438.
Si.
nonsculptural
analogous to those of his only rival in his
1
5 1 o.
1
panel,
Pinakothck,
"
1
X 9".
Munich
His altarpieces of later years are more con
ventional,
tlie
large
clay figurines; but
it
being mannered in
and wriggling outlines like
figures
their heavy loud color
is still
in the Resurrection, 5»
is
evocative
when
Christ,
swept up from a deep land-
scape into an orange and blue sky. In his one large
secular painting .Altdorfer produced his late master-
piece (1529; colorplate 53), the Bailie oj .ilexaiitlrr
439.
.Albrecht .Altdorfer.
The Holy Family ky
the Fountain.
Woodcut, 9" X 7"
351
Mainz, and symptomize the abrupt decline
tor in
of sculpture. This extreme of daintiness, based on
immense
skill,
seems to have a
Bene-
final fling in
dikt Dreyer (docs. 1507-1555), a fanustic artist in
Liibeck on the Baltic coast
affinity
(see
fig.
(fig.
440).
He
has an
with the earlier Liibeck master Bernt Notke
405),
and there was an intermediate
tradi-
tion of Liibeck carvers, but his stimulus in style
from the south.
and twisting
it
his figures are
He
treats
wood
like
is
wax. pulling
and leaving per\erse hollows so that
both decorative inventions and car-
riers of soulful pressure, again like a
phase of Par-
migianino. All this makes a provocative analogy
with the contemporary mannered countrv' sculpture of the Master H. L. and others; they are two
parallel lines
and do not meet.
Benedikt Dreyer.
height about 60".
Marv, Lubeck
440.
5/.
Michael.
Wood,
St.
Diirer Pupils and Other Painters
29.
By 1520 regional
distinctions in
German
were
art
almost obsolete, and the main forces were the draw-
sheer quantitative drop after that date seems unique
in the history of art.
The most
ing style of Diirer's woodcuts (fewer engravings were
being done), the Danube landscape mood, and the
prestige of Italy.
There was no second group of
great individuals like the painters born about
1
470-
one great painter, Holbein, and the most
distinctive sculptor. Conrad Meit, are both excep80; the
tions
set
who prove
on
this
the rule by emigrating.
sudden decline
in
A
seal
was
1530 when radical
Protestant groups burned church paintings in vari-
ous
cities.
"German
means work of the
352
sixteenth-century painting"
first
third of the century; the
brilliant
of Diirer's early
pupils
was Hans Suess von Rulmbach (docs. I50i-d.i522).
He
was faithful
to Diirer in his strong
woodcut
line
but perhaps was more naturally a painter, and
af-
warm glow of Venetian color. These
make him the most impressive designer
fected by the
qualities
of stained-glass windows in the Renaissance. His
most interesting difference from Diirer
figures,
is
that his
with their cubic breadth and tremolo of
outline, are able to fuse the Italian
craft traditions
which
in Diirer
and northern
had always remain-
ed separate. That
had had
presumably because Diirer
is
to struggle with the Italian ideas,
could absorb them
and Hans
an apprentice.
as
Hans Baldung Grien
(docs.
i507-d.i545) of
Strasbourg was certainly the most original of the
Diirer
pupils.
.Mong with rather conventional
church paintings, and woodcuts hard to distinguish
from Diirer s own, he produced strange small paintings intense in color,
woodcuts often
in color too.
and finished drawings of scenes, all with themes of
haunted stress: Death seizing a woman who tears
off her clothes
(fig.
441). a witches' sabbath witli
bony crones in an .\ltdorfer fir forest (1510),^" the
famous woodcut of the stableboy stretched on the
floor,
apparently knocked unconscious by a be-
witched horse (1544;
fig.
442),
and among
religious
442
Hans Baldcng
Grie.n.
Tke BeunUhtd StabUboy.
Woodcut.
14"
1
544.
xS"
images the limp corpse of Christ hauled up to
Heaven by
figure
a
crew of
drawing
is
The
mood projects a
of men not part of
angels (1519).*'
little
Diirer's,
but the
fatalism opposite to .\ltdorfer's,
the flow of nature but the victims of unnatural
powers. This imagerv of battered fear truly shows
the temjjerament often
Griinewald, and
its
less
properly ascribed to
small private scale reveals the
important impact upon Baldung of his greatest
predecessor in the Strasbourg region, the
Master (see
p.
s.^o).
**ith
Hausbuch
an amplified pressure
The priamong German
that has lost the .Master's civilized irony.
vacy also allowed Baldung. alone
441.
Hans Balding Grien
Death Seizing a Woman.
Panel, 12" ^ 7".
Kunsimuseum.
Basel
painters, to
remain cTeative
after the
burning of
church picture*.
.\
less-known Rhineland painter of violent
353
443
Tht
JeRG Ratgeb.
Flagellation,
from Herrenbcrger Altarpiece.
1519. Panel, 8'io" x 4'!
i
".
Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart
imagination
is
Jerg Ratgeb (docs.
i5o8-d.i526).
His
tall
Gothic altarpiece panels are old-fashioned,
but
his
formations of architectural space and active
people are acutely dramatic in a modern way.
To
fig.
443);
endless
stories,
are
filled
with faces peering
at
Christ's scourging, as in a Piranesi prison (1519;
354
This
the Christ Child
is
less
is
circumcised.
He
up-to-date than Baldung only
because the fantasy belongs to storytelling rather
than introspection.
Virtual copyists of Altdorfer are a series of
behead the female martyr the executioner pulls
her hair up;^^ the balconies of Pilate's palace, up
when
.screams. 8*
who draw and etch the same Alps and fir
and thus disseminate the pure landscape wide-
artists
trees,
ly.
Wolf Huber
(docs.
I5i5-d.i553),
who
in his
paintings repeats Altdorfer's clayey modeling and
fluid translucency, provided drawings for the multifaceted
craftsman
(1503-
Hirschvogel
Augustin
Sebald Lauten1553) to turn into prints, and Hans
sack (b. 1524-docs. 1561) worked the same vein.
M a date when most German
tious their sketches
seem
painting was repeti-
our
fresh, especially to
landscape-oriented eyes.
.Somewhat
recur
among
less
analogies to Altdorfer
literal
They surround us with
nature when they paint Orpheus
Swiss artists.
ornamentally rich
playing to the animals on a luminous fir-covered
hillside (1519,
by Hans Leu; docs. i5io-d.i53i),«-'
mourned by Thisbe,*^ and Saint
the dead Pyramus
John beheaded in fi^om of a rainbow (both by Nicoi509-d.i53o);8S or they
las Manuel Deutsch; docs.
use quick curly pen lines to draw soldiers in slashed
sleeves
and pants
vehemence
(fig.
444), with a bitter caricaturing
that reflects the Swiss trade of mercenary
1503-d.
soldiering at the time (Urs Graf; docs.
Indeed there is also a flavor of Baldung
in such a drawing as Grafs young pregnant woman
smiling as she walks past a hanged man.^'
When these Swiss painters move away from
1527/28).
444-
^'^s
Altdorfer by stabilizing their people with symmet-
Graf.
Soldiers on the Road.
1
5 1 6.
Pen, 12 1/2" X 9 1/2".
Kupferstichkabinetl, Basel
rical
ornament, they
recall the painting
in the only city that
being done
was now emerging
regional center, Augsburg.
It
new
as a
was Emperor Maxi-
and its leading artist.
HansBurgkmair (1473-1531), was the most Italian-
milian's favorite residence,
ate in his generation.
and
He
likes
broad simple spaces
large undetailed figures, but his bent
is
more
obvious in superficial copying of Italian decorative
flourishes on costumes, buildings, and door frames
(fig.
This Italianism of
445).
flated his
his has
importance in modern
him more
perhaps
histories, as
it
in-
gave
success than Diirer in the ceremonial
woodcuts of the emperor's triumphs and ancestry .^^
The same
and majestic
sort of Italianate tight decoration
figures
dominates .Augsburg sculpture,
These fashions were much assisted
by the emergence of engravings, not woodcuts this
time, by the Beham brothers (Hans Sebald. 1500too (see p. 382).
1550; Barthel, 1502-15.10)
and Georg Pencz
(docs.
1523-d. 1550), pupils of Diirer's late years whom
print collectors call the "little masters" because of
the tiny scale of their works.
They provide patterns
Madonnas
of decoration and Raphaelesque profile
with equal smoothness.
445.
Hans Burgkmair.
Thr Wrisskunig
illustration in
Visits
an Artist.
Der Weisskunig,
by Emperor Maximilian. Woodcut, 9" v 8"
355
30.
Holbein
Hans Holbein the Elder had been a leading painter
Augsburg (docs. 1493-d. 1524), skilled in the
wald's Cnuijixlon (see colorplate jii. bin .iKo
accepted patterns of Rogier and especially Schon-
Erasmus (1523; fig. 447),
and hands describe the personality conspicuously, in character and appearance, but are also the
in
Hans
gauer. His son
learned his father's
the
craft,
Younger (1497/98-1543)
but was more attracted to
modernisms of Burgkmair. So when the young
man went to try his fortune in nearby Basel (then
the
still
within the Empire), his
first
portraits, at age
is
a balancing allusion to the shape of the rectangle.
In the profile portrait of
face
units of a compositional pattern, firm, simple,
flat.
This participation of real
detail in a
and
measured
design gives Holbein's portraits their effect of be-
twenty, show broadly formed heads surrounded
ing the
last
by thick architectural ornaments that carefully
telling
because
repeat
boxed, and even ironically making them seem
Italian
conventions. \ei already
classical
the zest of motion in the friezes and the juicy
fleshi-
mented
across,
thoroughness.
all his life
now
also
Holbein,
with interesting
w-ho
styles
saw Baldung's work
(in
Italian influence
was
something quite new. Hol-
bein thus becomes thegreat master of the generation
after Diirer's,
Hans von Kulmbach
single High Renaissance
by presenting
had done tentatively)
a
Holbein had gone
to Basel to
work
as
an
illus-
scholar Erasmus had been attracted from Rotterdam. In five or six years he drew about thirteen
hundred printer's designs for translation into tiny
nearbv
probably a trip to Milan, where the work of Leonardo and his local successors, especially .Andrea
to
observed and neatly
he came
them out with weightier figures
and made the black air enforce unity of design, not
anxiety and paradox.
him
truly
trator for the great publishing industry there, as the
Freiburg) and followed him in trying out night
Solario, excited
is
experi-
scenes. Yet he filled
But the most important
it
detached and objective.
ness in the faces allow us to forget Buigkmair's
decorative
epigrammatic word about the people,
(as
woodcuts.
The most
famous, and the only ones not
prepared to go with a
text, are the fifty
Deatli scenes (1523-26;
folk tradition
show
fig.
and related
Deatli as a skeleton
Dance of
448). Derived fiom a
to
mystery plays, they
coming
to fifty people
wlio are labeled by social class; with infinite invention of motif.
at
liis
feast,
Death replaces the king's cupbearer
tumbles the
carter's load
of barrels on
the ground, and, most unforgettably, whips the
farmer's horses to finish plowing this one furrow.
statement in which Italian and northern dialects
The poignancy
are synthesized; he
simplification of the images, so that each tiny pic-
is
not playing one against the
other, as Diirer was
still doing, but makes each one
an ingredient plainly calling for the other. The
first
masterpiece thereafter
della (1521;
is
the theme;
356
fig.
it is
446).
The
is
the
Dead
Christ pre-
rigid tension of death
seen naturalisticallv. as in Griine-
is
keener because of the graphic
ture again has the unanswerableness of a four-line
epitaph in
tial
strict
meter, the concentration on essen-
points underlined by the tight order.
drawing
While
these, not with slowly revised perfection
but with a daily
fertility,
he was also painting
fres-
COLORPLATE
53-
Albrecht Ai-TDORFER. Thf
Battle of Alexander
and Darius. 1529. Panel, 52" v 47". Alic Pinakolhck. Munich
cOLORPLATE
54.
Hans Holbein. The
Artist's Family.
1528-29. Paper, 30" x 25". Kunsimuseum, Basel
COLORPLATE
55.
Jerome Bosch. The Hay Wain,
center panel of tripivch.
r.
[490-1500. 55"x 39". Palace, Escorial
coi.ORPLATE 5b.
y.ENT.N Massvs. Backer andH,s
W,fe. ,5,4. Panel. 28" x 27".
The Louvr
Hans Holbein.
448.
Death and
from the Dance of Death
Woodcut,
2
I
Metropolitan
^'x
series.
the
Farmtr,
1523-26.
2".
Museum
of Art,
New
York.
Rogers Fund, 1919
H\si HoLBzis. Erasmus of Roltfrdam.
^ 13'. The Louvre, Paris
447-
152'?
Panel, 17"
coes for the outside
all
destroyed
(fig.
and inside walls of houses, now
449).
These developed out of
Burgkmair decoration into
vei-\
complicated per-
spective systems related to Bramanie. His pxjrtraits
develop sculptural volume
as well as a sense of
character defined, and extend into group designs
like the
for
Madontm
Mayor Meyer's
1526),^^
and the
of the
Meyer
family, painted
private chapel (commissioned
own wife and chilThe clinging figures
portrait of his
dren (1528/29; colorplate
54).
constitute pyramids which are surprising versions
of Leonardo's Virgin with Saint
Anne
(see
fig.
195).
but with fewer and fewer lines to evoke their portrait intensitv
mental
and with volume
X'isiting
England
as a
intelligentsia in 1526-28.
Sir
as
of a single monu-
figure.
Thomas More (whose
member
of the Basel
Holbein was favored by
i'lopia
had been publish-
ed in Basel), and through him by the archbishop
of Canterbury, the royal astronomer Kratzer, and
Mayor Meyer, moderates who advocated
Hans Holbein. Drawing
Dance House. Basel.
449.
the
and painted their portraits. In 1529 radical
Basel Protestants burned church paintiTigs. and
Holbein went into exile along with Erasmus and
others,
for facade of
Ink and wash, 23" x 14".
Kunstmuseum,
Basel
religious
361
toleration.
Heading back
to
London. Holbein
in
Flanders was evidently struck by the work of Jan
van Eyck; the result
seen in two great portraits
is
of 1532 and 1533; Georg GiszeJ" a
chant in London,
by countless
objects,
who
glass,
and the
sits
surrounded
wood, and otherwise textured
full-length
French ambassador and
The
German mer-
in a corner
double portrait of the
a visiting bishop, called
Amboi.sadon,''* a curious
High Renaissance
remodeling of Jan's Arnolfini couple. The musical
instruments, globes, and so on, between the two
men, are
and most fantastiwhose acute distortion
in virtuoso perspective,
cally so a skull
on the
floor
the viewer must correct by looking in a
minor
placed in a particular position. But these experi-
ments soon give way
ity.
as
Portraits are
with most
to a steady increase in simplic-
now
his only subject for paintings,
artists in Protestant
England
for the
He also did designs for pageants,
and jewels, and when Thomas Crom-
next two centuries.
embroideries,
well, the royal jeweler,
became the chief minister,
Holbein became the royal artist of Henry VIII.
Of the king and his wives he produced images that
are the counterpart of Bronzino's state portraits
at
the same time in Florence, typically fiontal and
three-quarter length with fixed faces and emphasis
on costume, making the person a vessel of status
(fig. 450). Luckily for Holbein (as for Bronzino),
Hans Holbedj. Anne of Cleves. 1539Parchment, 26" x 19". The Louvre, Paris
450.
this pattern
we
coincided with personal interests,
see best in the poised late drawings
where
as
a few
acute lines create a mass, in contrast to the sensuously chalky ones done earlier.
31.
The
Last and Remotest Extensions of Early
Renaissance Flemish Painting
By 1450 the acceptance of Rogier's idiom was becoming very widespread. It was maintained in Flanders and France with little dissent until 1300, and
the amendments that it evolved in the interim were
often precisely in the direction of the routine and
easy.
The
interesting exceptions occur in marginal
circumstances. Memling, the immigrant accepted
in Bruges as the leading painter for twenty years
(see p. 315),
made
a principle out of
drawing the
fangs of the expressive Rogierian language, leaving
362
positive
it gentle and almost immobile. A more
conservatism seems suggested by his successor as
the local leader, Gerard David (docs. i484-d.i523).
.\ccomplished in the tradition and amiable in mood,
he first offers people who stand quietly and without
sharp edges in a well-lit and softly shaded world of
blue-green air. Besides Rogier, Jan van Eyck is being imitated in the microscopic surfaces and exact
textures of velvet and skin. But literalism decreases
and generalization grows
in his
Bafnism oj Christ
Gerard David.
45
Baptism ofChrisI,
1 .
center panel of triptych.
52" ^37"-
Groeninge Museunn. Bruges
symmetn' and deep
style
openness, analogous to Perugino's work in Italy.
These emphases almost produce a new kind of
time
(fig.
451), conspicuous for
image
its
heroic in front of a faint sky.
est test
whose figures seem
Perhaps Davids hard-
in the late Crucifixion,''''-
was
his early pair of scenes for a hall of justice
(1498)," on a theme like Bouts'. .\n unjust judge
is first condemned and then duly skinned, and each
of working had spread out from Bruges some
earlier. In nearby X'alenciennes on the French
border a miniature painter called Simon Marmion,
from .\miens
(docs.
1
449-^1.1489^.
altarpiece (finished 1439)"^
stable,
Eyckian aspect of Rogier
fied in his
panned
a small
which adopLs the most
Birlh of Saint John.
s
range, exempli-
He
tells
the story
event
of the local Saint Bertin through solid groups of
people, sharply lit and bound firmly in architectonic
seem involved.
are his most individual work, as they are in
is watched by quiet spectators in a softly
blended light with a detachment that makes Bouts'
Such graceful acceptance of
a
wellininured
frames. Marmion's emphatic
ling,
and
linear portraits
but Marmion's particular way of toning
Memdown
363
ders.
IP^
B9L'S Wi
^-^^^H
-^Wfdmf
\|U^^|
/'
452.
!
Ji
His .Madonnas
(fig.
452) again are a rounded,
almost classically bland version of a source that
is
1
now
der Goes. Beautifully outlined, not
too sweet, the motiiers gaze at standardized infants
while donors kneel in their
official furs
and
stare
heavily. Again, the Master's portraits are keener
and suggest the idiosyncrasies of great court persons.
To judge from the few surviving reinnants of
tiieir works, distinguished French sculptors were
..^ii
jr
Hugo van
-
s
Master of Movlins
\alivity with Cardinal Rolin.
Panel. 22" x 28".
Mus^e
Rolin,
Autun
Rogier, by blander
mood and
bioadei shapes, might
be considered French, on the analogy of Fouquet.
The
idea perhaps gains support again from the
work of the Master of Moulins. the most notable
French painter about 1480-1500 and periiaps still
active later on. He worked in eastern F^rench provinces for the dukes of Bourbon (this no longer
involved an independent feudal duilu, bui an
tocracy
dependent on King Louis XI), but
is
454.
Michel Colombe. Tomb
of
Duke
Francois
of Brittany and Marguerite of Foix. 1502-7.
Marble, 5'3"v ii'io"y5'4".
Cathedral, Nantes
.iii>
widely
thought to be identifiable with Jean Hay (doc.
1494),
who was probably
an immigrant from Flanusing a similar vocabularx.
Solesmes (1496:
453.
Entombment, 1496.
Stone, width I7'9
Abbey, Solesmes
".
earlier
one
in
down Flemish
fig-
45.S)-
Tonnene
The
EntoniUntriil at
similar in type to the
(see fig. 398),
again tamps
realism to large plain surfaces, and
builds to a pyramidal cubism of gieat force in
its
famous figure of the Magdalene sitting on the
ground: the whole group is distraciingly framed
in Italianate ornament. We know one sculptor of
this time. Michel Colombe (docs. i473-i5'2). from
his late
tomb of the duke of Brittany
(ir,o2-7;
fig.
454). Italian specialists carved panels of ornament,
and a painter called Jean Perreal (docs. 1485-1529)
provided the over-all design. ,\lthough a theory
that
Peneal was the Master of Moulins has now
is a connection between them.
been dropped, there
Colombe's carving is somewhat more detailed than
we saw at Solesmes. both in realism and ornament.
and accumulaies symbolic objeiii
solid truthfulness that
uiili
an amiable,
perhaps the worthiest
is
trib-
ute of a sculptor to Jan van Eyck's ideas.
Real individuality in this context reappears
in Flanders in the curious
form of manuscript
illus-
This was obviously an old-fashioned
tration.
after the invention of printing
became very
but
traditional;
around
1430,
art
and
flourished as an
it
extreme IUXU17, somewhat like the hand-tooled
racing automobile with us. and the absence of any
normal function opened up an opportunity
for
wild originality. This was seized by the Master
ol
Mary of Burgundy, who may have been .Alexander
Bening of Ghent (docs. 1469-1519). .Mary, da ugh lei
of the last duke of Burgundy, manied Emperor
Maximilian and thus transferred her Flemish
wealth to the Habsburgs of .\ustria. Her Book ol
Hours (fig. 455) exploits two habits in earlier Flemish art, the love of materialistic detail and the
elaborateness of the frames in earlier manuscripts.
The
painter
scenes inside
now makes
and
the frames bigger than the
them
treats
to dazzling still lifes
455
of flowers, jewels, or even skulls, three-dimensional
enough to suggest the surrealist illusion that they
have been dropped on the book; one frame is occupied by a lady inspecting her jewel
flamboyant but
still
more inventive
back in space, rich
are the
minute
moody
us
Not only
and experiments with
in aerial perspective.
air
nocturnes, but the notion of distance from
again logically extended to the treatment of
is
crowd
the themes, such as the
that almost prevents us
to the cross,
in front of Christ
watching him being nailed
or the series of calendar landscapes,
virtually without figures, that note the changes in
(a modern variation on
and reactionary context of
throughout the year
light
Pucelle).
book
Thus
the strict
illustration
leads by paradox to the freest
experiment, and yet the ordinariness of the figure
drawing reminds us that
this
is
a
from the great inventors of Flemish
minor offshoot
style.
Mary of Burgundy's Habsburg son maiTied
a
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and
an apparent pupil of .Mai7's illuminator went to
Spain
as
Isabella's court painter;
456.
he was known
Juan de Flandes.
Magdalene
Saints
Mary
of Burgundy.
Framed by a Windou
Vellum, 9" y
6".
National Librars-, Vienna
b>oxes. Less
icenes within the frames; logically, they appear far
do we have dimmed
.Master of
Madonna and
at the Feet
of Jesus,
from an aliarpiece. Panel, 8" x 6"
Royal Palace, Madrid
Scene,
illuminated page from a Book of Hours.
there as Juan de Flandes (docs.
has
left
1496-1508).
He
an extraordinan masterpiece, an altarpiece
for Isabella's orator)', of fifty small scenes of the lives
of Christ and Mar>
(fig.
Each enamel-like
456).
panel encloses bright, polished
little
figures, like
faceted jewels, in a neatly plotted perspective that
suggests he might have been in Italy
on
his
way
to
Spain, .\gain the drawing forms are traditionally
Rogierian, but the light, both in color and space,
has a unique assertion of precious intensity. Clearh
Isabella preferred northern painters to the Spanish
altar-craftsmen,
who were more
countrified even
than the Germans in their distant medievalizing echoes of Flanders. Another of Isabella's court painters
was Michael Zittoz (orSithium; 1469-1525), a wanderer from Reval on the Baltic and a pupil of .Memling's; later
he turned up at the English and Danish
courts too. His portraits were especially approved
by Isabella's daughter, the Catherine of .Aragon
who was queen
of England, and by other royal
patrons; in the vivid surviving head of
Guevara
(fig.
457),
we can
see why.
Don Diego
It
modifies
Memling's portrait pattern toward looser and
irreg-
ular shapes, happily intertwined with rich variety
of costume texture.
In Bruges itself Gerard David has a li\elier
but more obscure younger contemporary in Jan
Provost (docs. I49i-d.i529), an immigiant from
Valenciennes, where he had married .Marmion's
widow. Before the
identities of
Michael Zrrroz
4j7-
Panel, 12"
x
/).
9".
National Gallen- of Art, Washington, D.C.
Andrew Mellon
Collection
Juan de Flandes
and Michael Zittoz were made firm by modern inquiries, some of their works were considered his,
who was probably
and he does suggest an average of this whole context.
His figures and many of his small-scale objects are
mobile and fresh, with a festi\e and impulsive air
surprising in the domain of .Memling and David,
doubt,
and possibly connected with his awareness of .\ntwerp, a less stagnant environment than Bruges.
But it is only contrast that makes them conspicuous,
since they are giouped archaically, in a monoto-
ever more accentuated.
nously routine pattern only the more noticeable
of his time, a survivor. His sensitivity to tone and
because of the bright details.
texture
More
366
typical of the last years of Bruges,
no
is
the prolific painter
.\drien Isenbrant (docs. i5io-d.i55i).
He was faith-
teacher David, and as he copies David and
ful to his
others the shadowy, soft tonality of this tradition
However
tragic the
is
themes
of Christ's Passion and death, the figures are as
remote from
stress,
as the repetitious
is
tion in a
being born only from other
Isenbrant
is
absolutely skilled, but
vacuum.
art,
remote from the ideas
it is
a holding ac-
32.
[ust
Bosch
when
the all-purpose Heinish language of Jan
ofcalling Bosch "Hieronymus," the latin for Jerome,
a token of this
van Eyck and Rogier was wearing away, a genius in
a small town developed a different art out of still
altitude; if
older materials. Bosch, like El Greto later, worked
called
in a locality
where no important
earlier; thus observers
who have
tience to hunt out the very
up
the
artists
not the great pa-
minor currents making
traditions of these masters
standably,
if unfortunately,
had lived
have under-
regarded them
as
unique
and built rather fanciful theories to
explain what they did. (The romantic modern habit
eccentrics,
458.
Jerome Bosch.
The Temptation of
St.
Anthony, center panel of
< ^^'
Museu Nacional de
triptych. 52"
.\rte .\ntiga,
Lisbon
is
it is
somewhat skewed and uninformed
preferred, Jan van Eyck ought to be
•Johannes.")
background
is
The impwrtance
suggested by the
of Bosch's
fact that
he (docs.
i486-d.i5i6) had a father, two uncles, and a grandfather
who were
all artists in
the same small Dutch
Hertogenbosch, near the Flemish and
town of
's
German
borders, from which, so far as any records
report, he never traveled. Vet he
enough
to receive
became famous
an order from the Habsburg ruler,
Maryof Buigundy'sson; the combination of extreme
and major contacts seems parallel to the
mix of the old-fashioned and the innovative in his
localism
art.
His way of painting people, especially nudes,
and
boneless,
soft,
glovsing,
closest to the late
is
seen in Bondol
and last, perhaps, in Conrad von Soest, who was
working just across the German border in the time
fourteenth-century Flemish style
of Bosch's giandfather;
who was
first
a factor in
it is still
Lochner,
so influential in the time of Bosch's father.
Lochner uses another medieval tradition that becomes Bosch's most famous motif, the fantastic evil
creatures such as devils with heads
on
tiieir bellies;
others of Bosch's aeatures, with heads and feet but
no bodies, descended from medieval manuscript
borders and gargoyles, and Bosch seems to have
retained
all
of these as a natural inheritance. But he
learned to be an expert in the
realities of textures
modern Flemish
The new
result
is
Museum
of Fine
.^rts,
Christ Bearing the Cross.
Ghent
the hallucination effect
makes him
that
positively see
fascinate us, like dreams where we
what we cannot accept. It is a different
phase of the tension between supernatural values
(the
and
est in
visible facts that
His Wife
style
(see
fig.
Jan attacked in Arnolfiiii and
359);
Bosch paints as
had grown up without
a
the Eyckian
if
matching giowth of
new bourgeois themes. And iiis sophistication greatly
all combined
from real details, especially the crawling and the
slimy, made doubly disturbing by being monstrous.
these, with his textural assurance,
filmy transparent surface,
all
as a
aspects of Erasmus. If Bosch
twentieth-century type, he
is
less
is
to
be seen
the psycho-
analyst than the revival preacher.
The
paintings,
all
sidered in three groups.
show daily
life
undated, are usually con-
The
earliest, in small scale,
under ethical judgment. The seven
a
deadly sins^^ are jeered through caricatures of the
within the atmospheric
glutton at table and the vain girl before a mirror,
he gives
panorama.
We may
communities of Thomas' admirers were strongsmall Dutch towns), the career of Savonarola,
and some
enlarges the repertory of monsters,
To
Jerome Bosch.
Panel, 30" X 33".
seem guaran-
space, so that the old stylized fantasies
teed real.
459.
of things within a Boutsian airy
with an inscription, "Beware, the Lord sees" (the
readily coiniecl
the hallucinations
with our cultural view of the subconscious. But
Bosch, a rich citizen and active
member
of a pious
most authentic words of Bosch). As a systematic
set
they maintain the tradition of calendar pictures,
as a
berating of society they belong to the same trend
laymen's lodge, can be better linked to a religious
as the secular
trend typical of the
Hertogen-
by Brant (1494) or the Praise of Folly by Erasmus
(1509). In a noineligious picture of people cheated
forerunner of the Protestant Reformation,
by a carnival huckster,"" Bosch can be compared to
less
cosmopolitan
time and known to have been active in
bosch.
it
A
cities
's
emphasized an emotional approach
relatively slight
tanical
importance
to
Church,
of his
God,
tion,
368
Hausbuch Master; both were concerned with
silliness, but one is angry and one gently
himian
emphasis on hard work, and special hatred
rueful.
a
It is
constant syndrome of the Western tradi-
though
for various reasons not of
its art.
In
produced some of its greatest effects,
Thomas a Kempis' book The ImiUUion of Christ
this
the
a puri-
for the
of the most piiysical sins, gluttony and lechery.
indeed
a
age
it
moral literature of the Ship of Fools
The
large
triptychs,
the second group, are
again sermons to the sinner's conscience, with a
about the world's instincts. The
Hay Wain (colorplate 55) proceeds from original
sin in Eden on the left, to humanity indulging itflavor of fatalism
on the right,
wayward inven-
self in the tenter, to Hell's Kjiiiients
Bosch's glowing light, with
all in
and animal
tions of plant
life.
The same theme
reappears in the Garden of Earthly DeliglilsJ'' but
more
making a tapestry-like invenand spiky bnshes. A simplei
systematically,
lory of
hopping
beasts
variant, the Templatioii of Saint Antliouy
(fig.
45H),
surrounds the shrinking hermit with the innnense
Antwerp and
33.
As the kings
Burgundy
ol .Spain
making
it
a con-
burgher
(owns of Bruges and Ghent were giving way
Bearing the CiOis
Clirist
(fig.
459), a close-
up probably influenced by motifs of Leonardo.
E\ideiuly .Massys, e\en witliout
lull capacities
of articulation, wanted to be modern, and so he also
behaved
like
an artist-figure rather than
a
craftsman,
taking no role in the local guild but building a
High RenaisAntwerp when one forceful
Quentin Massys (i465/(i6-i5'5o), came from
grand house that was a tourist attraction. His aims
were perhapsonly understood by Peter Paul Rubens,
still a
l.()u\aiii
great world port today.
and
memory began to
dependent on Van Eyck and
for the first
paint in a way not
time in
Rogier. His instinct for the figure
(lie
fatalism seems to replace preaching, such as the
repeated
to .Xnt-
sance art began in
artist,
soft weak good figure at the center, pressed
and crushed by tough evil all around it. This is the
motif of Bosch's last works, in which regretful
on the
High Renaissance
the
stituent part of a widely scattered state, the
werp,
Bosch's important compositional forms, the focus
were replacing the dukes of
as rulers in Flanders,
and introduces one of
variety of his nightmares,
is
not taut or thin,
materials of objects do not greatly interest him;
the great .Antwerp artist a century later, both as to
his
way of
living
and
as to painting the
massive
own time
energies of real
Flemish
.Massys was given
fame but oddly limited imitation.
A High
flesh.
In
his
Renaissance mood, though, did permeate
he wants to present people of imposing grandeur
the city, usually in
and monumental sweep
(hange from \'errocchio
than Massys', and continually implying a puzzled
the change from
460).
(fig.
to
It
is
like the
be seen in Leonardo,
change from .Schongauer seen
in Diirer.
Massys
is
older than both Raphael and Diirer, and although
he copied Leonardo and found
him
a comfort,
But the bigger and louder scale
distinct.
evoked
at
distin
Perugino seen in Raphael, the
is
he
is
not
every level; Massys paints, as he nuist
more
bance about liow
literal
Italian imitations
to proceed.
Jan Gossaert (docs. r503-i5!52), tailed .Mabuse
from
man
town, journeyed to Italy as a young
his native
exoticism to
Burgundian prince and made
It was clearly an
him and dominated his whole life. In
painting he
is
in the train of a
drawings of ancient sculpture.
fascinated by nudes, anatomically
have learned to do, with a minute precision, and his
extremely articulate, the males extremely muscular
flesh imitates the real thing. In the
and the females extremely cushiony, both bulky.
They are surrounded by extremely intricate archi-
main, though,
sharp focus survives not in things but in
a
banker and
his wife confer in the
acts, so that
shop and
a
reference to Petrus Christus arises (colorplate 56;
and Massys
worked effectively on double portraits,
of Erasmus and another scholar at the ends of a
see
fig.
378). Portraits are important,
and both frames and figines are
and sliarp-edged (colorplate 57). The
nude tiius becomes not an idealization of
tectural fi"ames.
polished
classical
lypically
humanity, but
as
virtuosity in a jewel box.
The double
man seen as statuary, from a
foreign land
table.'* Parallel to
Leonardo
in the
way congested
a
precious curiosity displayed with
distance
—
is
groups of heavy people turn to each other, Massys
to the artificial eroticism
also copies his
the precise laboriousness of a blueprint.
takes
them
monstrously jowled grotesques and
seriously
as
persons,
recoiding
minutiae of their strange heavy heads.
tlie
paintings were
tlie
made
related
of bodies entwined with
These
for a series of roval patrons
of
Burgundian family,and the feelingofa cultivated
369
Qlentin Massys. Deposition from
Musee Royal des Beaux-Arts, Antwerp
460.
collector of
the Cross,
dead exactitudes anticipates the grand-
ducal court of Florence. Gossaert's small
specialize in infant Christs with
cles,
and
his rare altarpieces in
like that of
When
center panel of triptych. 8'6"
Madonnas
Herculean mus-
ornamental tracery,
some other Antwerp
absorbed the High Renais-
sance more calmly, and more superficially. For his
many Madonnas he develops an efficient and smooth
formula, with a plumply
soft
and bland
figure
8'i
i
".
the court of Francis
arrived there).
and centralized
to
The
(fig.
I
of France (the same year Rosso
sitters
smile mildly, luxurious
461), in a flavorless alternative
Holbein, and, like him,
reflect the portrait type
established by Leonardo's followers in Milan.
painters.
Joos van Cleve (docs. 151 i-d. 1540/1)
settled in .Antwerp, he
-i
more
.At the French court Joos found a provincial
carbon copy of himself already established, Jean
Clouet (docs. i5i6-d.i54o), who had immigrated
from Flanders
down
to
—which
city
is
not sure
be court painter, naming
his
—and
been given attention because of
like Diirer
His routine
new ways had
his accidental status as the leading painter
cessful
time in France; a more
S7()
and Rapiiael than like Rogier, as if the
already become routine. A very sucportraitist, he went in 1530 for some years to
art has
settled
son Frangois.
human
of his
spark appears only
ill
his
albums of
portrait drawings, technically imi-
Leonardo and maintaining the Fouquet
tradition. These two visitors, Joos and Jean Clouet,
tative of
.ire
the
the succession of Flemish painters for
last in
French kings that had begun with Bondol; Francis
I's
invitations to Rosso,
Primaticcio, and others
soon transformed the visual environment in France.
The most surprising .\ntwerp
vears.
perhaps
modernity,
He
was the
is
a
artist
of these
token of the sense of international
)oachim Patinir (docs. I5i5-d.i524).
first
painter anyw here to
make
his career
as a
landscape specialist, which he did both alone
and
in collaboration
Massys and Joos van
iliis
on panels having
C.leve, a \ers early
kind of division into
figures by
example of
In all his
specialties.
landscapes wide miles of geography are
the same rocks, forests, villages,
and
filled
lakes
(fig.
with
462).
The objects are often on our eye level, but we look
down on the total panorama. The picturesque ob-
461
.
Panel,
Joos VAN Ci.EVE. King Francis
28"/
John G.Johnson
462.
I
23".
Collection, Philadelphia
J0ACHI.M Patinir. Tht Flight
into Egypt.
Panel, 7"x8".
Mus6e Royal dcs Beaux-Arts, Antwerp
463.
.\ntwerp Mannerist Artist.
Thf Beheading of John
Panel, 19"
x
the Baptist.
14".
Staatliche Museen, Bcrlin-Dahlcm
jetts are real,
but
ilic
assemblage taniioi be; vel the
clear atniosphent intervals permit an uiicrouded,
agreeable sequence of contemplation. This might be
thought of not
still
life,
Indeed
a very
it
as
landscape but as an atmospheric
Flemish
set
of interesting objects.
would be strange
if
these primitives of
professional landscape were not in essence
thing
else.
some
Patinir learned his blue air from Gerard
A group style was practiced in Antwerp by the
mainly anonymous "Antwerp Mannerists" of this
same generation. They are even more agitated by
exotic interests than Gossaert
one of them
(who probably was
The best known,
briefly in his youth).
Jan de Beer (docs. 1490-1520), is less acutely mannered than others, but they all paint traditional
panels with scenes of the lives of saints as
were costume jewelry
if
they
463). Besides emphasizing
David, but Bosch, his greatest contemporary, freed
him to see the wide world as provocative small nota-
carved banisters, sword scabbards, embroidery, and
tions in an equal series.
candlesticks, they twist their tiiin people in a snaky
464.
Bernard van Orlev.
Muste Royaux
d'Art
Job's
Afflictions,
et d'Histoire, Brussels
center panel of tripiych,
1
52
1
.
69" v 72".
(fig.
movement
that
seems
to uaiit to substitute
dramas. They are best
for
as
games
makers of surfaces, with
tiny brilliant ornamental designs that are meaningless
but authentically inventive.
Their mood
is
Orley, the leading painter in Brussels (docs. 1515-
action in figures.
ness of Raphael,
His masterfig.
shows Job's dying sons and daughters flung
464).
a congested variation
a
massive cubic palace,
on RaphaeVi Deal liof.-iiiaiiias.
By keeping many ideas
a static pattern
genuinely Rogierian nervous
successors in his city than his contemporaries in
He
was dominated by
his
sur-
aware-
this
Bruges had
in theirs.
whose tapestry designs were shipped
Haarlem and Leyden
34.
It is
a
17,",).
in control. Van Orley makes
one of the most impressive assertions of the
Flemish High Renaissance, but he had no more
ornament of the
two contradictory forms,
face takes
p.
AfJIidions (1521;
J all's
forward out of the space of
related to that of Bernard van
d.1542). His thick small-scale
on buildings and
be woven (see
10 Brussels to
piece, the triptych oi
wrong
and Holland
to contrast Flanders
period (they were not
split until tlie
in
tliis
next century;.
provincial and
(
onservatix e cast, hard, wooden,
and
angular, tight in contour, and unshadowed. \et he
but they do contain regional schools, and just after
rejects the
1500 the northern one in Holland was the most
and thicker physique, and above
promising.
complexities of color, especially in costume, so that
giound,
It
neither ran conservatively into the
Bruges, nor was
like
like
it
Antwerp,
Rogierian formula in favor of a shorter
color areas the people
older suggestions, and were especially lucky in being
from
.After
Geertgen's early death the leading painter
Haarlem was Jan Joest (docs. i505-d.i5ig), who
came from the German border town of Calcar. He
in
is
another literal-minded user of Rogier's spindly
jointed figures in precisely adjusted actions, with
more smoothness than some others, and oddly accented by the vehement caricatured heads of the
wicked that suddenly dart out
at us.
He differs
from
German towns only in
wide influence may suggest
competence, but
his
moving
alive,
grow malleable and easily
Without borrowing
in rich crowds.
Italy he has found a modern resource for High
Renaissance airiness and mobility. It is a narrow
vein, but this rich precision
even
portraitist,
at
the
made him
Habsburg
court.
a
favored
And
there,
presumably, he was able to stretch to a surprising
novelty, an imagined landscape of the .New World
(now a Habsburg territory; fig. 4(13). with hills, huts,
and naked Indians fighting, a graphic variation on
Patinir and a curious parallel to Piero di Cosimo's
Klemish-tinged fantasies of primitive
a host of regional tnasters in
his
he piles on deep
merely by the saturation of adjacent elementary
swamped by the attraction of Italy. The painters
managed to build a modern language on the base of
able to tap Geertgen tot Sint Jans and Bosch.
all
In nearby
life.
Leyden Cornells Engelbrechts
asserts a distinct school (i4
18".
Museum
York.
Harris Brisbane Dick Fund,
1927
his
purse stolen while his tooth
Lucas' world people cannot
plavs to Saul (1508;
while Saul
the
is
pulled (1523). In
is
come
together: David
468), keeping his distance,
fig,
great image of insanity in art.
first
Saint George, having killed the dragon, has trouble
coping with the hysteria of the princess,
Anthony and
gingerly touches. Saint
whom
he
his temptress
(1509) are two tight verticals. In this vein the master-
The Milkmaid
piece
is
daily
life
(1510;
469). a scene of
fig.
always noted as a century ahead of the type
developed in Adriaen Brouwer's peasant paintings.
.\t tlie far left
at
fannhand stares at the girl
and she coquettishly ignores him;
a gangling
the far right,
they are held apart by the horizontal lines of the
two bony cows who
the world in
fill
which
up
the middle
this faulted
occurring. Lucas reports not so
tragedy as a
Even
with
muddled despair of things going wrong.
a miracle
its
actors,
and represent
human relation is
much inonumental
by Christ, the Raising of Lazarm,
open-jawed crowd and
seems to inark
less
a
its
aniinal-like
main
triumph of goodness
than an incoinprehensible violation of reasonable
468.
expectations.
Lucas van Leyden
David and Saul.
1
Engraving, 10" x
becomes
7".
Museum
Metropolitan
While the analogous depression
Baldung Grien's prints
508.
of Art,
New
York.
Rogers Fund 1918
a social
The
is
judginent.
traditionalism of Lucas' drawing style
aided the speed with which he presented his
ideas.
in
privately liaunted, Lucas'
The
fertile
prints were famous at once, but were
iinitated only for their piquancy, not their charge.
The few early paintings
in mood and originality
are less skillful but similar
of motif, such as the chess-
gawking kibitzers. '* Later the paintings
gain command, and the prints grow less original.
plavers with
Lucas shifted his technical allegiance
after
late
to
engravings
Raphael. Tlie satire grows milder, with
triumph
in the scene of Mary
her conversion, strolling through a
witii lovers, a
world of mass
their foibles with
one
meadow crowded
instincts.
amusement,
its
Magdalene, before
as
Lucas tolerates
he does in the
painted crowds of the Last Judgmenl (1526-27;
colorplate 58) and Moses Shikiiig the Ro( k:^" he
mellower and throws away hard impact.
a great painter,
4',;,.
Ll
_-
AN Leydev. Thf Milkmaid, i^ir
-
Engraving, 4
Metropolitan
Gift of Felix
and
1
,'2"
Museum
of Art,
M. Warburg
his family, 1941
New
York.
exploiting the Leyden color tradi-
tion but eliminating
saturated
x 6".
planes,
its
tight detail: thinly painted
gently modeled, create figures
alive in shafts of light.
Even single
portraits analyze
character in the set of inouth and wrinkles, with
penetration but withholding a formula of judgment.
Yet these works seem to be tentative moves
direction unsettled
376
is
He becomes
when Lucas died
at
in a
thinv-nine.
COLORPLATE
57.
JAN GosSAERT. Danoi.
1527. Panel, 45" ^ 37". Altc Pinakothck.
Munich
COLORPLATE 5S. LucAS VAN LtYUtN. The Loil Judgment, center panel
Museum "De Lakenhal," Leyden
g's" X 6'i ". Stedelijk
of inplych. 1526-27
JLORPLATE
^9,
FiETER Brif.gel.
HuTiteTs in the
Snow. 1563. Panel. 4b
^4
.
Kunsihistorisches Mu-scum. \
i
coLORPLATE
6o.
Metropolitan
El Greco. View
Museum
of Art,
of Toledo,
New
c.
1600-14. Canvas, 48'
York. Bequest of Mrs. H. O.
Ha
H3
never, 1929.
The H. O. Havemeyer
Collection
The Beginning
36.
of Italianate Architecture and
Sculpture
All buildings of noiiliein
and
Gothic
structural technique
in
On
style.
Europe
in the fourteenth
and many
fifteenth centuries,
later ones, are
and therefore
in
the other hand, the emphasis in the types
of building changed. Hardly any cathedrals and not
so
many
large churches
buildings,
and
were begun, but more
change from the elemental
castle
civic
brought a
rising living standards
with a few
all-
complex mansions and palaces.
vaults and more flat ceilings
and rectangular windows because they had several
purpose rooms
to
They needed fewer high
stories,
hence spaces with balanced proportions and
human scale. This is a slow and obscure growth.
The new kind of relatively low wide rooms might
\icwpoint
structural
ilie
were. Short neat
lively
are
will
a
filled
but we can't
tell
drawn on Gothic masonry. The same procedure
emerge soon in Spain, where it gives a name to
whole epoch of style, plaleresto (silversmith-like),
and
also in
Germany and
the
Low
to
(the
approach
ornament
is
to
masonry construction) and the
Renaissance; yet from another view-
point they are Renaissance in essentials (the organizing of space
is
and social character) and the ornament
Gothic, a tracery evoking profuse plant growth
rather
than
asserting
rectangular
about their visual qualities,
a
much
higlier rate of remodeling, not
mention destruction. Their appearance may be
.reflected
when
new treatments of church
in
on the walls of
broad
a
hall-like space (choir of
Gloucester Cathedral, begun 1329).
idea that a church
is
The
surprising
borrowing secular motifs seems
confirmed when other churches, built
are
interiors,
horizontals and verticals are strongly equalized
as
low cubes,
crowned with battlements borrowed uiifunc-
tionally
from
castles (Edington, 1352, built
by the
powerful Bishop Edington of Winchester). Only in
do we begin
the fifteenth century
to see elegant
dwellings that are in no way castles, such as Jacques
Coeur's (see
fig.
391);
when wooden
they seem most
noticeably like the Gloucester choir forms (Ockwells,
about 1460).
After
1500 their small decorative elements,
window frames and moldings, may be
King Charles
centralized,
and from
craftsinen.
Italian.
France inherited
no longer feudal
to invasions,
and some
V'llI of
state in
Italy
The
first
1
When
a peaceful,
483, he turned
brought back fashion
visible result
is
in the
chateau of Gaillon, begun in 1501 for his counselor,
the cardinal of .\mboise.
north
Italy,
It
picks
its
motifs from
such as those of the Certosa of Pavia or
Pietro Lombardo's work, easier to absorb since
tlu'\
were thrmsehes smface elements, not iinegral
to
Countries. In one
true sense these buildings are Gothic in essentials
particularly their surface handling, since secular
building has
with curlicues,
grotesque animals, and mythological fancies,
evolve inside a traditional castle tower, as a stack of
stories,
luscan originals
as the
pilasters,
Staircase, Chateau of Blois.
Begun 1515. Height 49', width 26'
470.
order.
These
«(
paradoxes characterize an art that
is
pressive of its makers but a suspenseful
not fully ex-
which
the same time
at
and uncertain
the building.
dominated by art forms prepackaged
elsewhere, and on both counts possible to define as
mannered.
staircase at the
transition,
After the
becomes
tentative probes this
first
The
first
spectacular products are
the chateaux of the Loire, originally royal hunting
lodges.
fig.
The most famous
part of Blois (begun 1515;
470), the spiral stair in the courtyard,
is
an
intimate enough blend of Gothic masonry^ and
Italian
Renaissance.
tion,
panels to be
decorative
but
this
Round
one
is
stair
labeled
French
towers are a Gothic tradi-
widened and given an
easier
gradient; the balustrades articulate these changes
in a unit
Sculpture of course
work
chief resulting
tomb (begun
is
felt
same
the
stimuli.
figure
is
The
the cardinal of .\mboise's
1515, later modified to
accommodate
another cardinal of the same family).*'
Its
focal
French tradition of Flemish
in the recent
textural realism in a milder translation with broader
forms,
and allegorical virtues
like
Michel Colombe's
stand behind in a row. But they are
set in heavy
ornamental panels, which impose cubic measurements on the statues and add to their seriousness.
Italian
fashions
came
to
German
sculpture
through the Fugger familv of .Augsburg, the richest
in
Europe, bankers
chapel (1309-18)
many
show
artists are
a
tradition.
47 1
.
is
to the
emperor. Their family
packed with carvings on which
known
to
have worked, and which
range of styles from tightly decorated Italian-
ate panels to
wooden choir-stall figures in the older
much debated whether the artist in
It is
DOMENICO DA CoRTONA ( ?)
Chateau of Chambord.
Begun 1519.
Staircase,
Visible
pan
of shaft, height 40'8",
diameter 35'9"
miff
a similar
four-hundred-room chateau ofCham-
in itself
outside, producing a novel pattern of tension be-
tween stockv vertical and near -horizontal
the exclamatory focus of
is
more emphatically,
bord (begun 1519; figs. 471. 472) is moved to the
center of a square building, an Italiaiiate noveltv
the settled vocabulary of local craftsmen trained bv
Italian visitors.
Still
MUi^^^
IBlZmEKSIE
472.
Begun
Plan,
1519.
Chateau of Chambord.
Main
block 140' square
charge was a craftsman from L'lm. Adolf Daucher
he was the eldest, or one
(docs. 1491-1523), because
younger participants, Sebastian
of the
Loscher
(1482/83-1551), because he was the architect.
may
question
case
we do not know
other works.
them from a body of
either of
The large central image of the suffering
Christ, either by
1538),
The
not even be a genuine one, and in any
Daucher or his son Hans (1486comparison with what went
in a close
is,
before in Germany, very modern, boldly freestand-
ing and with a
though
in
rhythm of thin swinging
soft
cloths,
such an achievement would not
Italy
seem remarkable. In a broader sense, though, it is
fundamentally in a continuity with .Vlultscher
still
in
Ulm almost a century before
(see
404), in pose,
fig.
mood, and intended impact. .\nd of course the
the chapel exploit the rich accepted tradi-
reliefs in
German
tion of Italianate
made
prints,
for
such
copying; Diirer, Cranach, and the .Augsburg printfaithfully reproduced.
maker Burgkmair are
success
by Holbein's
also indicated
is
Dance House in Basel
outcome most visible today
nal
(see
and
The
Roman
and
Their
origi-
But the
low-relief
lettering.
sculptors are divided
between the "overripe Gothic"
the Master H. L.,
449).
and other
fine
German
energies of
fig.
more
a vast production of
is
tiny precise plaques, medals,
sculpture, with satyrs
far
altars
of Leinberger,
others, this classicism in
monuments also copied
Nuremberg sculpture after
miniature, and a very few
from
Italy.
The
great
the era of V'eit Stoss
fig.
is
473), apparently the
Flotner
Peter
figure in
Italian
(docs.
ornamental designing;
it is
flat,
repeating the miniature
Paris; the
but he then
reliefs.
The
Adam and Eve and
nude
and half daring
is
viewed
fell
back on
favored themes
the
Judgment of
as half classical idealism
real personality,
Conrad Meit (docs. 1511-1544). .\fter an obscure
youth in the Rhine area he is found working under
Cranach
at the Protestant court in
30*
Nuremberg
controvertible reality
he
left
(fig.
474). .Not surprisingly,
Wittenberg and soon became court
Malines
to the regent
Wittenberg.
He
artist in
Margaret, the Habsburg
who
ruled Flanders on behalf of the emperor. For her
Meit made statuettes, court toys
like
the small
bronzes of Italy but serious in tone, and then equallv
solid portrait busts that to us
titillation.
Out of this context comes one
City Hall,
Bavarian I^y
1499-1554) carved one major cult
image of a seated bishop saint (1514),'^ imposingly
are Diirer's
Bronze, height 'without base
copied from an
The
(docs.
plain though rather
Peter Flotxer.
.\polIo Fountain. 1532.
one ambitious sculpture by
1522-d. 1546), a dominant
engraving of about 1500.
Hering
473.
the .Apollo Fountain (1532;
factuality of
Roman ones
(fig.
family tombs which were set
husband's family domain
(1
may
475).
at
recall the plain
She then ordered
up in her deceased
Biou near Geneva
526-3 1).*3 These are an odd mixture of funerary
traditions, using the
French memeuio niori device
nude formula of Cranach's
paintings in statuettes of alabaster, bronze, and
wood; they are compactly built and densely heavy,
of representing the deceased twice, once on the bier
the specific material being thus charged with in-
a desiccated corpse.
revises
the standing
richly dressed as if asleep,
and once underneath
Meit wraps
as
all this in a florid
383
Conrad Meit. Portraits of a
Boxwood, heights 5" and 4".
British Museum. London
475-
476.
CosRAD Krebs.
Couple.
East wall, Courtyard,
Schloss Hartenfels, Torgau. 1532.
Length
width
474.
CoxRAD Meit.
Boxwood, height 10
Kunsthislorisches
Lucrelia.
1/2".
Museum, Vienna
at
179', height of projecting
ground
level 2n'4"
bay
89'.
Gothic shrine; peering through, we see Meit's firmly
monumental people,
to the
dignified by the
unyielding stone, which
polishing, .\fter the regent died
Flanders, but his
The
first
last
(fig.
round
\
less
476).
Its
staircase
at
in
also
is
Torgau. the main
a new^
duke
in
base of two staircases at
gests Blois (see
ornament.
fig.
its left
and
right. Ihis sug-
470). but without the panels of
The builder, Conrad Krebs
(1492-1540).
was a skilled Gothic mason; he may have got his ideas
from Peter Flotner. who designed in a Nuremberg
town house (1534) the first German room with the
same Italianate pilasters already used in France.
These and some lesser related structures precede
walls focus at the center in a
has a symmetrical
tower, which
The
37-
remained
years are again obscure.
Saxon court, ordered by
seat of the
emphasized by
.\leit
German Renaissance building
near Wittenberg, the castle
15^2
is
same allusion
the
appearance of German Renaissance archi-
full
tecture bv twenty years.
Scorel Generation
well-known generation separates the careers
from the repentant Saint Jerome in
his siudy,"*
of .\Iassys, .\Iabuse. and l.ucas van Leyden, w ho have
a certain public fame, from the emergence of Bruegel
these curiously concentrate on financiers, merchants,
about 1550. In .Antwerp, the new cosinopolitan
older Flemish clutter of precisely
had asserted
that
itself so distinctively
with
city
.\Iassys.
the spark indeed died rapidly. Massys' two rather
untalented sons had successful careers there.
The
most typical personality of these decades is Pieter
Coecke van .\elst (i502-i5;,o); no certain paintings
bv
him
survive and those that
may be
his are fairly
tax collectors, or gold weighers,
sunounded by an
drawn objects and
sharp-edged papers on which we can read
receipts
(fig.
477; see colorplate 56).
and
people
wear archaic costumes and are twisted, physically
and psychologically,
in
cutting caricature.
The
painter seems smolderingly obsessed with the style
of life that the classic Flemish painters had assumed
But he was brilliant in organizing activities:
a print publisher and an architect, he designed
tapestries and stained glass, translated .Serlio's hand-
as their base.
book on architecture, and took charge of a royal
procession in 1549 and wrote a book describing it,
much like X'asari. And his one visual legacy is a
archaic costumes, colors, and spaces,
[XX)r.
bills
The
Jan Sanders van Hemesscn (docs. 1519-1557)
and more modern touch but the same
has a softer
and similar
themes. Often with a loose attachment to a Biblical
text,
he
insists
on
social corruption, the
man robbed
of woodcuts resulting from a trip to Constanti-
in the parlor of the
bawdy house
nople, full of interesting reporting of costumes and
Matthew among the
tax collectors. Christ driving
topography, .\ntwerp was certainly busy in the arts.
The trend to specialize in painting certain
out the moneychangers. His congested groups of
ghastly smiling people make him the truest precursor
set
themes
(as
seen in Patinir)
is
the context of .Massys'
two most distinctive imitators. Both make clear
that .Massys was most usable at the least Italianate
end of
his range,
by imitating his more Flemish
modern Belgian painter James Ensor. (Elisor's
work is often traced back to Bosch, but by analysts
who know only the few Renaissance painters adopted
by today s tastemakers.) These two are the only good
painters of .Antwerp in their time,
and
real part of Bruegel's base.
and realism of particulars
more personal notation of daily life and
caricature. .Vlarinus van
Roymerswaele
(docs.
1505-
1567) was trained in ,'\ntwerp, but then retreated to
his native rural area and there spent his life repeating a few themes,
figures in little
all
of them based on half-length
rooms painted
in hot colors. .Apart
47«). Saint
of the
habits of minute drawing
his
(fig.
Hollands vein
is
not so thin.
and they are
One might
that in .Massys' time the .Antwerp artists
a
say
had
to
High Renaissance and lulian
under the weight, but the Leyden
assimilate both the
methods, and
artists
fell
only had to assimilate the High Renaissance.
385
477-
MaRINUS VAN ROYMERSWAELE.
The Moneychanger and His Wife.
'539- Panel,
33"X38".
The Prado, Madrid
478.
Jan Sanders van Hemessen.
Loose Company. Panel, 33"
x 45".
Staailiche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe
It
was then easy
tor the
next geiieiation, with Jan
van Scorel (1495-1562), to assimilate Italy. As a
pupil of Jacob van Amsterdam, he manages crowd
scenes, in his
color
and
variety,
vein,
386
works, witli modern depth
rich ornament, giving
and
still
first
his later works, in
prefer the
crowd
of
them sparkling
Lucas van Leydeiis
to the hero.
His travels
liad
taken
him
to
travel sketches also
|evusalem as a pilgrim, and his
became
a
permanent base of
his
Rome
to
imagery. While returning he stopped in
work
for the
Dutch pope Adrian VI (whom the
Italian artists considered to be uninterested in art).
.\fter all this his first
big work on his return, an
altarpiece of Christ's
Eniiy nilo Jinnsulcin, not
479-
Jan VAN ScoREL. Entry
Museum, Utrecht
of Christ
into
Jerusalem, center panel of Lochorsl Triptsch. 1527. 31
Centraal
surprisingly involves a
crowd
scene, a city
map, and,
most fascinating, a version of Michelangelo's Deluge on the Sistine Ceiling so thoroughly translated
Dutch that
into
479).
it
does not seem an intrusion
The foreground climbing
figures
(fig.
become
silhouettes in front of a far-off vista, creating the
formula of a landscape with decorative foreground
people whose primary function
to
is
emphasize the
receding space, a constant of seventeentliientiuA
classicistic landscape.
Scorel
perhaps he
most memorable
is
first
in
portraits
and
exemplifies the complete separation
of style for portraits and for other works, hinted bv
Massys and later commoTi
Scorel's portraits, inspired
(e.g.,
in
Tintoretto).
by l.ucas and compa-
rable at their best to Holbein's, use translucent
simple cubes for the heads and graphic hands.
He
painted members of a club of pilgrims to Jerusalem
in
long rows
tlie
gtoup
Holland,
(1
525-28), ^^ like Geertgen, foretelling
portraits typical of seventeenth-century
btit
he
is
finest
wiien most personal, as in
480.
Jan van
Scorei..
Agatha van Schoonhoven. 1529.
Panel, 15" X 10".
Gallcria Doria-Pamphili,
Ron
"
^ 58"
481.
Martin van Heemskerck.
Si.
Luke Pawling
portraits of his lifelong mistress (1529;
the Virgin.
fig.
480).
1532. Panel, 66" xgi". Frans Hals
and
of a smiling twelve-year-old boy.*" Both pin their
liveliness to a fixed
moment by devices of transparent
A
rival
Dutch
portraitist,
Jan
Vermeyen
known today, though he was
much favored by Emperor Charles \'. Typical of
the times is the record he made and then used in
is
less
tapestries of a trip to
Tunis with the emperor. His
velvety costumes and rigidly frontal faces of court
dignitaries are again early instances of the state
portrait.
A more
versatile
Dutch
rival of Scorel
Martin van Heemskerck (1498-1574).
remembered
for his four years in
the sketchbook he
made
Rome
He
is
is
best
(1532-36);
there includes accurate
renderings of the half-finished Saint
388
its
Peter's,"'' tiic
construction. Such drawings are a
and others, entranced
typical expression of this artist
by the dignity of Italy but
the facts about
surfaces of paper or cloth.
(1500-1559),
best record of
Museum, Haarlem
it.
still
to pin down
home in Haarguild members his
wanting
Before leaving his
lem, he presented to his fellow
most individual painting, Samt Luke I'uinting Ike
Virgin (1532;
perspective
fig.
and
481).
It is
aggressively expert in
in sculptural
modeling, but the
comic touch of the saint peering
through
his spectacles saves
becomes symbolic of the
it
enhancing
deeply glowing color
his
his very real
now
He is a splendid
people with the
traditional in
and with rich contexts of gesticulation
of still
life.
drawing
artist's instinctively close
perception of his high-toned subject.
portraitist,
at
from bombast and
Holland
as well as
The Hegemony
38.
In the new generation at work from
Antwerp nearly monopolized painting
of
the
Antwerp
1540s,
in the Low-
The artists were generally pupils of
Coecke and sometimes of Lambert Lombard,
is
almost primitively
who is even less known for his own paintings today.
Lombard (1506-1566) drew pupils to his school
these
teachings were
Frans Floris (1516-1570) became .Antwerp's
Countries.
Pieter
stiff,
prized.
leading painter about 1550, soon after returning
from Rome. There he had studied Michelangelo's
where he transmitted knowledge of the
ancient sculpture he had copied on a trip to Italy.
Judgment, and his own grand-style work is
dominated by nudes in complex poses, often foreshortened, which make a network of limbs without
He
sought remains of
spatial context
the
.4,lps
in Liege,
Roman
sculpture north of
and corresponded with
Last
(fig.
482).
The
particular figures are
\'asari
about the
not original; only the arrangements are claimed
origins of Italian painting; though his
own work
as inventions, as if they
482.
were jxiems using ordinary
Frans Floris.
Thi Fall ofth, Ribtl AngtU.
1554. Panel.
Mus^e Royal
Antwerp
ioi"x
7'3".
des Bcaux-.\rts,
389
^1
^H
As these heads suggest, portraits naturally
flourished in Antwerp.
who
Willem Key
(docs. 1542-d.
produced smoothly constructed
Biblical compositions, was the master of an excep1568),
also
tionally low-keyed portraiture, sensitive to individ-
ual
mood
with delicate shadows, an effect like some
of his contemporaries in Venice. But the great Ant-
^^HkCa-'.:
werp
portraitist
mo\e
to
Antonis
is
Mor
(i5i9-'575). His
.Antwerp from Utrecht, in Holland, where
he had been Scorel's pupil, symbolizes .Antwerp's
autonomy elsewhere.
capacity to wipe out artistic
He
at
once became the favorite of the Habsburg
^9R^S
court group and was sent about to Madrid and other
HIm
classic
Antonis Mor. Quffn A/ay Turfor
Panel, 43"x33". The Prado, Madrid
483.
capitals, painting the royal families,
Mary
Habsburg Philip II of
London, and it remains the
habitants of any of their nations. His Qiieen
Tudor
483; wife of the
(fig.
Spain) took him to
version of her appearance.
p)ortraits
do
that
all
is
needed
taste for
Suave, secure, and in control, they are large,
and always turn a bit to the
and environmenfavor of calm and as a result are
side; they suppress active gesture
interest in
tal
clamped into
rigid patterns, yet are distinctly soft,
and graphically individual in expression. He
his slightly older contemporary Bronzino mark
rich,
atid
personal brush work makes
.Mor's
usually knee-length,
moment
of the state
phase (Holbein, X'ermeyen)
Our
Indeed
make them seem
to
ideal ft-ontispieces to biographies of their important
sitters.
the classic
words.
who were more
interconnected with each other than with the in-
its
jxartrait. In its early
imposing formality
had emphasized the importance of the person who
now
such art seem academic in the worst sense, but the
was a ruler;
age of Floris considered composing, as an intellec-
person, restricted by patterns of etiquette that
tual phase of painting, to be the
area of concentration. His
cles
and
his
women
most attractive
men show
idealized mus-
sinuous limbs, but both also
have an unerasable Flemish reality of skin siuface.
them from being copies, it sets up an
unwanted tension between the grand and the ordinary. Yet Floris' authoritative sweep in composing
is on a quite different level from Coecke and LomIf this saves
bard and
his style
is
found echoing
all
over Europe
for the next fifty years, a period easy to misinterpret
if
this
building-block
is
not known. Being very
busy, he only sketched comf>ositions and painted
separate head studies, for use by his assistants.
The
heads have a globular substance and creamy freshness that
make them, more
intimately than anything
else in Floris, a synthesis of
aims.
:^90
Roman and
Flemish
the ruler
is
a different species of
above casual mortals.
his status
\
mark
later evolution
more nuand
has not happened
among Mor's
countless followers (even
merous than
Floris') destroys the individual
substitutes a pure mask, but that
Mor's cool well-bred people,
to
each other's
all
cousins and the lords of all around them.
The fine balance in Mor between
and good breeding may
indi\ iduality
reflect the fusion
of his
.Antwerp residence and his Dutch training (he
never ceased to admire Scorel).
is
more obvious
.Amsterdamer
The same
fusion
in Pieter .Aertsen (1508-1375),
who
\ears in
Antwerp, but eventually went back
Holland.
He
server
lie
and
rose as
is
proportionately
less a
it
were
an
spent his twenty most active
more
to
a direct ob-
learned designer than Mor. But
to the challenge of
the intellectual invention of a
new
.Antwerp by
category of ob-
ser\ation;
as
the
Floris, outliving their
he
is
career
first
still-life
painter in
he was even more influential than
histors',
narrow
Mor
social relevance.
approving of these materials and backnig them up
or
with orchestral glorification, abolishing the super-
But
ciliousness that pervades all other sixteenth'
29'6"
Philibert de l'Orme.
492.
Gate, Chateau of Anei.
Height
to highest cornice 37'
in the caryatids (1550),
women
that support a gallery in a
replacing columns,
music room of the Louvre.
His greatest work, panels for the walls of Lescot's
Fountain of the Innocents (1547-49;
carved in such low relief that
outline. But Goujon's line
Jean GoLjoN.
491-
other
Symph, from Fountain of the
suavity,
Innocents. 1547-49.
2'6".
Marble, y'g" x
The Louvre,
stone.
yet
found
in Pierre Lescot (docs.
1
-,4i-d.i57«) the
first
fig.
490)
is
engraver's architecture, sharp lined and
classically neat.
ment
But the austere rectangular orna-
controls rather than hides the majestic pro-
fMJrtions
and the refined adjustments of
slight
n
it is i
curves with slow
to abstract
fill
breathe with a gentle
life,
just suitably their tall assigned
rectangles.
The
greater architect
(docs. 1533-d. 1570)
same
Philibert dc
serious, rather systematic way, but,
spent time in
Italy,
l'Orme
contemplated materials in the
having
he approached them not througli
engraving but through construction, on which he
wrote useful
treatises.**
him
The one major
surviving
Here begins French
work
the slightly dry
but heroically grand
lis mistress Diane de Poitiers (fig. 492). Its gate
and doorway get emphasis and even grandeur from
exposition of clear logic, that in the seventeenth
century dominates intellectual Europe.
ented sculptor, Jean Goujon (dcKS. 340-1562),
1
seems to have worked out
his
own
style
tal-
who
by using
the available engravings of Fontainebleau nudes,
but stating a
mood
subordinated
of grave classicism.
to architecture,
partly by
is
.Anet. the
chateau of Henry
three-dimensional block relationships, plain cubes
Lescot had as collaborator a manelously
is
not agitated as
It
is
recessions.
and
projections
classicism,
its
to
49').
by incised
alluding to the nature of chiseled
still
The nymphs
manage
Renaissance architect in northern Europe with a
personality of his own. His courtyard (from 1546;
fig.
lives
human^and never surrendering
rhythm, yet
Paris
is
such asBouicellL
artists
it
.All his
work
most spectacularly
alternating with voids,
tiie
borders being articulat-
ed by columns and moldings.
is
a
pure cylinder,
cate curves
insistent
as
we
are
drawn on the
The
chapel
at .-Vnet
reminded by the
floor.
intri-
The weight and
impact of such forms theoretically impiv
dvnamism, whicli
is
realized bv
De
I'Orme's most
39 =
^
•
1-;
494.
GiRMAiN
I'lLij-.
Corpse, relief
Jean Dl vet. The
from the Apocalypse
Engraving, 12" x 8".
Metropolitan
Museum
on tomb of X'alentine Balbiani. 1572. Marble, 13" x 64". The Lou.
Seven Candleslieks,
series.
1546-55.
of Art,
New
York.
Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1925
495.
tomb
LiGIER RlCHIER.
of
396
Effigy,
Count Ren^ de Chalons (d.1544:
Stone, height 69
^4>^^
".
St. Pierre,
Bar-le-Duc
re.
Pji
notable follower, Bullant (docs. 1540-d. 1578),
who
breaks the rules of classicism, but in a rather learned
way, with colossal units and vertical pressures.
is
hard
to
England
to the
know whether
a similar
development
It
in
copying Bullant or responding similarly
is
better-known De I'Orme.
Erotic
painting
court
takes rather stodgy
after
Fontainebleau
and provincial forms
in
nudes
by the portraitist Frangois Clouet (docs. 1540-d.
1572) and by
d. 1575),
Quentin Massys' son Jan
long a French resident.
either lying
down,
The
(docs.
1531-
ladies are seen
in inflexible copies
from Leo-
nardo, or oddly sitting in baths. Richer related
effects
mark Germain Pilon (1535-1590), the
finest
sculptor of his time in northern Europe. For the
tomb of Henry
heart, ** buried separately by
Il's
made
old ritual, Primaticcio
the general design
and Pilon carved three Graces holding the urn,
facing outward in a triangle. They surrender Primaticfio's wittiness for a gentle mobility, a mildly
sweeping flow of organic naturalism.
To amend
Primaticcio's tone Goujon's was evoked, but then
Pilon
amended Goujon
to
be more sculptural.
The
capacity of this series of artists to develop from
limited local stimuli
is
extraordinary. Pilons later
496.
more independent work includes the bronze kneeling tomb figure of Chancellor Birague (d.1583),^'*
in
Metropolitan
up
imposing but natural
like a
surface,
and thus sure of
Other tomb
figures,
traditional in France
Tomb. Etching, 13"
of .Art,
New
York.
a single massive shape,
mound and downy in
human dignity.
a very
including the naked corpses
(fig.
at the
Museum
Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1930
which the typical meditative seriousness exploits
the soft cloak to set
Jacques Bella.nge.
Thi Three Marys
493), tighten their mastery
of the body's flowing masses to mark a stress of feeling.
Here Pilons court art seems related to a very
contemporary French art, practiced in
Later, in a gieater artist, this
ity
strangely
uses
mordant
Mannerism, sho%ving smiling sinuous
ladies with
The artist is Jacques Bellange (docs.
1600-1617), who was a painter and pageant designer
for the dukes of Lorraine but is now only known
tiny heads.
different
through drawings and large-scale etchings
small towns of eastern France by a surprising series
They
of dissimilar
artists. Its religious
\ehemence, some-
times taking archaic forms, reflects the wars of
reli-
gion that drowned France in the second half of the
century.
Its first
major monuments, crudely violent,
are the .Apocalypse engravings (1346-55;
fig. 494)
of Jean Duvet (1485-1561), which rework Diirer
and the tomb of
body be shown
as
496).
last
and
which makes Bellange
.Mannerist. But they are urbane in their
technical splendor, an astonishing ability to
let
which has convinced some observers that Bellange examined not
needle line produce
fluffy surfaces,
only Fontainebleau but Baroccis
art.
Here,
much
(docs.
count's will had ordered that his
are intended to let formal whimsies assert emotional
count by the Lorraine sculptor Ligier Richier
The
in their stylistic language,
the
(fig.
are provincial in their pious extremism
more than with Pontormo, it is clear that snakily
distorted people and perverse spatial measurements
into tough, elaborate rigidity,
1530-1566).
religios-
the vehicle of Fontainebleau
it
would look three years
after
a
he
Baroque generation, LoiTaine
artists invoked with
printtnaking and religious vehemence (Jacques
fervor. Still later, in a
died (which was in 1544), so the sculptor shows him
with scTaps of flesh clinging as he lifts an arm ihat
produces other odd brilliant
holds his heart
Callot,
(fig.
495).
Georges de
la
Tour).
391
Low
41. Architecture in the
Countries, Germany,
and England
-^
About 1520 Renaissance
fronts were applied to a
few of the narrow houses in Bruges by simply coat-
?
ing the posts between their neat square windows
with fluted half columns.
new
m
ii«i|| »tKEHlWJ
A*.*.*i
WWBBHnWWW'
T
'
•" rT'^^j*^.'-
—*
awkward patching became
Diuch architecture
for three cen-
Ornainent also preoccupied the
sonality in
brother Cornelis
to ridgepole 80',
became
'*'i*ji^^
"^^ti.
the head of his guild,
is
Hall. Ant^^erp. 1561
the
After
(1514-1575).
usual Italian trip he returned to .\ntwerp,
and published engravings
Antwerp's town
popu-
(see p. 374) that
major work
larized Fontainebleau strapwork. His
Height
per-
first
Dutch Renaissance architecture, Frans
through Jerome Cocks shop
Cu>
a
one diagonally above the other; when treated
the trademark of
turies.
steep gables offered
steeper ones required several
dashingly, this originally
Floris'
'
The
silhouette.
scrolls,
The
but were given .Albertian scrolls as
a difficulty,
hall (1561-65;
fig.
where
497),
65.
width 223'
the basic type follows a long line of Late Gothic
town
halls in Flanders,
with high belfries and gor-
geous carvings. This Floris modifies toward heavy
clarity
wide
and thus
to dignity: four stories high,
and
like earlier ones, the building underlines
its
width with horizontal moldings beneath heavy
colonnades and windows, but
what seems
to
front gable.
The
it is
centralization
balance of vertical and horizontal
this the ancestor
in the
center
at the
be a giand tower;
placed
is
actually a false-
and the calming
is new and makes
of a city-hall type long standard
Netherlands and Germany.
German
buildings
several sources
modified
imports
and gradually worked up
distinct traditions. In eastern
Germany
from
several
the pioneer
example of borrowing from France, at Torgau (see
fig. 476), led to the capable town halls of Leipzig
(1556) and Altenburg (1562), the latter by a builder
who had worked
Torgau; in both town
at
halls
smooth octagonal towers are set over smooth squares.
The dukes
imported
in Bavaria
and the Habsburgs
in
Prague
Italian artists, entirely unoriginal in
home
terms, whose works in this Gothic context have a
498.
WiLHELM Vernucken.
Porch,
Town Hall, Cologne. 1569 (restored 1866-81)
Two main stories, including steps and
cornice, 37'6"
x
53'
startling effect of clear fteshness.
The
cially noticeable.
A
the
sculptor
is
espe-
rare native response to this
the town hall porch at Cologne (1569;
398
balance of
space in their measured porches and walls
Wilhelm Vernucken
fig.
(docs.
is
498) by
1559-
one of
the century-old
Alberti's Palazzo Rucellai,
studied through his followers in Ferrara.
is
squared off by wide moldings and
with a
window
wall
in each square; the fact that pilasters
and moldings are
note.
The
flat pilasters,
in red terracotta
adds a refreshing
These restrained effects contrast with the
street fa^,ade of the
same building, Flemish
in the
ornameiual Floris vein, where hemis replace the
pilasters.
Indeed there
is
as
much
of this sort of
designing, with vibrating ornament that speaks of
Late Gothic feeling through Floris' or Serlio's
oms,
as there
is
of the measured simple kind.
most spectacular ornament
bau,
now
is
at the
idi-
The
Ottheinrichs-
a ruined palace, built in Heidelberg by
the ruler Otto Heinrich
(fig.
Carved under
500).
the supervision of the Flemish sculptor Alexander
Colin (1527/29-1612), from 1558,
499-
face
Gabriel von Aken
fa(;ade,
VVismar Castle. 1553.
its
crawling sur-
in the spirit of the Certosa of Pavia,
windows framed
and Erhard Ai.tdorfer.
Courtyard
is still
as
complexly
as a series
with
of Serlio
fireplaces.
Height 57'
is echoed in manv
and houses, while the simplicity of VVismar
develops most suggestively in the castle of Horst,
begun in brick (1559) by the Dutch architect .Arndt
This ornamental fashion
city halls
d.1609).
Its
echo of Palladio's Basilica and
its
pendence on inembering rather than ornament
its
Renaissance
effect
overcome the
upper-story arches are pointed.
mar
is
a
The
more modest adoption of
(from 1553;
fig.
499).
Its
fact that
castle at
defor
the
Wis-
Italian patterns
courtyard fagade
is
basically
Johannsen and finished by V'ernucken. Built on
water, Horst is a huge square in plan with four corner towers.
The
walls are
measured
off only by the
white stone window frames, while the courtyard
adds colonnades and rich voluted gables with linear
CounvarrI farade. Ottheinrichshau, Heidelber?. 1556-59. 55' X
20'^'
ttSi'SA
Robert Smythson. Facade.
501.
patterns,
severely two-dimensional to be
all
producing
a restrained finesse that suggests
seventeenth-century building.
and rich
exterior
changing
Longleat. 1568.
to
interior
is
Width 242'
stire.
Dutch
The contrast of plain
typical of fortresses
mansions, such as the one in Stuttgart
round corner towers and
following century, and
later buildings
to
such
as
we also know
little
of slighth
Somerset House, which seem
have copied Philibert de I'Orme and Bullant.
The mansions
trary,
of the 1570s and later, on the con-
inaugurate the countrs-house tradition that
in the
continued to a peak in the eighteenth century.
courtyard three stories of loggias, each with orna-
Their owners. Queen Elizabeth's courtiers, them-
mental Renaissance columns. What
selves often coordinated the masons' work.
(1553)^' with large
Horst
is
unusual
is
though windowed
that the outside,
at
like a
mansion, inherits enough of the plainness of castles
to
exclude
ornament;
all
as a result
it
is
by excep-
ley
House and others
and Serlios books, but the
tion not given a Gothic or a Renaissance label, but
(begun 1568;
1590;
The
all
first
impressive results of the transition
and mansion are in England. Unlike
other countries. England gave itself to the Refcastle
ormation before
which
is
why
it
ing or sculpture;
Renaissance architecture
its
To
any other.
brilliantly unlike
ing
the Renaissance take root,
let
it
has virtually no Renaissance paint-
modeled the tomb of King Henry
with old-fashioned skill, but
(from 1312)*'-
his figines
compromised
Hampton
Wolsey, in 1530,
tradition of the
now
is
a
its
builder. Cardinal
medieval mansion
duke of
interior walls copied
fortifications
400
and
built
None-
Fontainebleau, and on the
its
strapwork and herms, but
the outside walls of colored
a fabulous pleasure
in the
this post-chivalric culture,
become ornament. Henry himself then
rival
still
Berry's at Poitiers, though
and the
the Gothic vaults
even the coats of arms, in
such (1538)^^ to
in-
Court, ^^ which Henry \III ex-
propriated after he beheaded
dome.
tiles
It
fig.
suggest that
was torn down
it
was
in the
origi-
Longleat
501) and Hardwick Hall (begun
502) both seem to be designs of Robert
Smythson (i535-'6!4), and
one of the great
if so,
he must rank as
architects of his century.
Some
observers credit the designs to the owners of the
houses, but that
is
less plausible.
facades, long, symmetrical,
clusters of
The
rectangular
and low, are
filled
Robert Smythson. Facade.
Hardwick Hall. Derbyshire. 1590. Width 202'
502.
with
wide windows accompanied by no nearby
had
\' II
with local tradition and his ornament had no
fluence.
most
finest are the
be sure, a wander-
Pietro Torrigiani.
Florentine sculptor,
is
fig.
Burgh-
French buildings
nal architecture then being produced.
suggests the future direction of the country house.
between
reflect
a slight trace at the roof line.
ornament, only
As
at
Horst, they glass the plain castle wall to arrive at
The sense of fanciful pageant mixed with
unomamented construction is much like some
the queen.
the
But here
phases of Elizabethan drama, such as the holiday
more; the absence of the big corner towers,
the walls being articulated instead by very slight
mixture of Cockneys and mythological people in
Shakespeare's Midsummer \ighfi Dream. The
projections of parts of the facade, produces a
flat
owners were
backdrop
for
non-Gothic, non-Renaissance
a
there
is
effect.
screen, a glittering two-dimensional
the owners' vast green lands. This effect of inviting
display and lightness
is
perfectly to the point, since
the houses were constructed to receive visits from
The
42.
In
all
newly rich beneficiaries of the exmen without
propriation of monasteries, clever
ancestry,
and no doubt viewed
in traditional
ways but
their property not
as a delightful
outcome of
briskly practical exertions.
Phenomenon
Portrait
twentieth"« up
awkward rows of thoroughly drawn heads
Scorel).
rather
ofmen.likeavisualmembershiplist (1362;
fig.
505).
formula becomes conuminated with a
genre formula much later, it will be worked on by
.\fter this
Frans Hals and Rembrandt.
.Mors formula was the favorite one. In his
own
ture,
time his discreet designs, all-over velvet texincisive identifications have almost equally
and
accomplished users
Neufchatel (docs.
.Nicolas
in
1539-1567), an Antwerp painter who went to Nuremberg and became an entrancing recorder of
intimate groups
506),
artist
among
slightly drier patterns
that
from
when he
Johannes Meudorfer and His Son.
Canvas. 40" x 36".
Alte Pinakothek,
Munich
1
56 1
fig.
and shinier costumes suggest
he learned something
Rome
of the formula.
only do such
minor but
NicoLAVs Nelfchatel.
visited
Salviati's version
.Not
5o6.
the old families (1561;
and Hans Muelich (1516-1573), the favorite
of the dukes of Bavaria in Munich, whose
artists
have uniform and
definite ambitions, but each
is
cases the only painter of any sort in his town.
some of
their continuing
that such a question as
German
fame
"Who
is
due
in
most
Indeed
to the fact
were the outstanding
painters in the generations after Diirer's
507.
Tobias Stimmer.
Jacob SchwylztT and His Wife.
Panel, each 73'X3i".
1
564.
Kunstmuseum,
Basel
403
graphic notation of character that
still
remembers
Holbein (1564; fig. 507). A suavity like Mor"s invades Italy and around 1550 sets the direction of
the career of
Moroni
in
Bergamo, the
near Switzerland, where Moroni
er
and the
first
is
Italian
town
the only paint-
Italian portrait specialist (see p. 255).
But court portraits are the chief type; the frozen
formula of the face as mask and the elaborate cos-
tume now become
and
so puppet-like
far
from
nature that they look medieval. Frangois Clouet
uses the style of Salviati in his portrait of a botanist,^®
but later paints the king as a costume man-
nequin
in silhouette;^'
and Mor's heir
in Spain,
.\lonzo Sanchez Coello (docs. i557-d.i588), trans-
forms
his princes
and princesses into hangers
starched ruffs and rigid farthingales
(fig.
508).
for
The
most familiar images of Queen Elizabeth of England
are of this type.
town of few
It
affects Italy in
artists,
Bologna, another
in the portraits
by Passerotti
(1529-1592), more like Clouet than like anything
5o8.
Alonso Sanchez Coello.
The Infanta
Isabella,
and
Italian;
Daughter of Philip
in
Rome
in the tin-mold cardinals
11.
by Scipione Pulzone (docs. i567-d.i598). Although
1579. Canvas, 45 5/8" x 40 1/8".
Pulzones
The Prado, Madrid
effect of social
been described
it
as
abstraction has rightly
removing the
sitters
should be kept distinct from the
from time,
less
extreme
phase of Bronzino and Mor.
death?" has to be answered somewhat apologetically
by citing Muelich or Xeufchatel, as for Spain
would
call
up Sanchez Coello or
Milliard. Protestantism
las
is
in
England Nicho-
Cranachs Wittenberg and
Basel.
artist, as
it
and most surprising variant on
portraitists,
Nicholas
became the
1618/19)
town and moved
to the
Protestant town of Miinster to be a portrait specialist.
When
such a monopoly happens in a very
Catholic context, as with Muelich in Bavaria or
Sanchez Coello in Madrid
(see below),
it
seems that
the modish kings in those courts liked to import
Italian artists for
to fall
many
back on the one
tasks
but found
it
natural
local talent to record their
In the late sixteenth century these lonely specialists,
now
strongly tending to the full-length
formula, occupy a very large proportion of the stage.
They
are quite sharply split
between courtly and
bourgeois. In Basel Tobias Stimmer (1539-1584)
tan paint a husband and wife
404
509.
A
Nicholas Milliard.
Youth Leaning on a Tree.
Card, 5 1/2" X
Vicioria and
London
faces.
full
length with a
and
(fig.
Milliard
(1547/48-
greatest specialist in
509).
The handbook he
wrote on his technique^* also mentions the impor-
left his
altarpieces in their native
first
the miniature portrait
determined the striking career of Ludger
tiny rather than grand,
is
England. Following some visiting Flemish
in
court
was
England and
later in
freshest
Ring the Younger (1496-1547), a Protestant
brother to paint Antwerp-type Catholic
torn
who
It
and
certainly a cause in
Nuremberg of this monopoly by one
in
The
the full-length portrait
it
3".
Alben Museum,
taiice of the flicker
cheek
show
to suggest
this in
of eyes and the shadow on a
emotions
The
in a face.
yomig men who, recalling the
portraits
pastoral
(and both were exchanged as love tokens). This
portrait art, like the English country houses,
supported by courtiers and expresses their
suggestions of Giorgione's patricians in Venice, lean
weight hedonism, but
on
tel in
These are the young
who patronized playwrights and exchanged
a tree or gaze into space.
lords
sonnets
—another expression of
feeling in tiny frame
its
.Nuremberg
is
it is
not a court
Neufcha-
the most suggestive source of
small-scale sensitivity, but Hilliard's variant
airier
and more
is
lyrical.
Bruegel
43.
Pieter Bruegel (docs. 1551-1569). the greatest artist
of his time in
all
northern Europe,
labeled as the successor of Bosch.
modern fame
piquancy of
extracting
satire
on
is
They share, besides
them from
tlie
traditionally
human
their context,
condition. But
Bruegel's specific reflection of Bosch occurs consistently
only in engia\ings from
his
draw-ings,
tradition of printmaking in the
in
which the individual Renaissance man loses his
is satirized as amusingly silly, shown as the
victim of evil forces or blind
an antlike mass. His
and
own
bumpy
inci-
time: Patinir's sweep of landscape with
dents, Hemessen's sermons
contexts,
and
on
social
ills
in Biblical
especially .\ertsen's nionumentaliza-
tion of lower-class people.
More fundamentally than
these local sources, used almost as a technical meth-
od, Bruegel uses
and
glorifies the rich antiheroic
detail in the
artists
seem
its
to
had completely
greatness, Lucas van Leyden,
of Paul, with
and make much more use of the
and reduced
fate,
closest precursor in space, time,
only widely familiar work. His paintings exploit
slightly,
.Master,
dignity,
prophesied one phase of Bruegel
patterns current in .Antwerp just before his
Hausbuch
Baldung Grien, and Lucas van Leyden,
Altdorfer,
published by Jerome Cock and at one time Bruegel's
Bosch
art.
is
light-
in his
Coinienion
major event an unnoticed small
human crowd.
.And as these earlier
parallel to the Praise of Folly by Erasmus,
unread today but
still
great
a
name, Bruegel's
reworking of them may be compared to Rabelais;
both treat
hence
life as a
comedy, absurd and vulgar and
zestful, endlessly detailed
and
all
part of a
great stream.
On
his
youthful trip to Italy
510.
—the
standard
Pieter Bruegel.
Tht Fall of Icarus.
Panel, iransferred to
canvas, 29" x 44".
Musics Royaux des Beaux-.\rts,
Brussels
403
5
!
I
PlETER BrUEGEL.
.
Children
s
Games. 1560.
Panel, 46" X63".
Kunsthistorisches
Museum,
\'ienna
move
— Biuegel
tional
supplied
painted landscapes, not
titles
conven-
as
Figures inserted in the corners
most.
as
(Christ
Appearing
to the Apostles at
and
the Sea of Tiberias, 1553^^),
scheme soon
this
evolved into the Fall of Icarus (fig. 510). W. H.
Aiiden has admirably observed the point of the picture, that the ordinary
workaday
life
of plowing,
herding, and sailing outweighs the extraordinary
event of Icarus'
ness had
fell
made
fall
hiin
from the
fly
sky. Icarus' ambitious-
impractically high, so that he
and drowned, but the second and most
punishment
is
that his
fall is
is
not noticed. Bruegel
not the virtue of humility,
matic continuum of nature's
thus the
plowman with
his
life.
it is
The
its
the auto-
hero here
is
plodding horse, already
showing Bruegel's elemental cylindrical modeling.
But no other tiieme of Bruegel's comes from classical
mythology, which may have seemed too high
class.
His great paintings of 1559-69 show almost
annual revisions
in figure coin posit ion, constantly
seeking greater and greater unity out of infinite
details.
The first works, the Buttle
and Lent
(1559""'),
make
511),
many
Bi'lxcccii C.iirtiival
and Children's Games (1560;
a rather flat all-over pattern
a
out of very
tlie
actors in a pageant in a village square present
combat, assisted by the
406
fig.
tiny equal units of trembling importance, the
subjects being approached like an inventory. In
first,
fat
and the
thin, the
berry bush
worldh
— underline througli hard precision their
meaningless and fated repetition. Likewise Flemish
I'roverbs^'^^ lets tiny figures act out sayings
such as
"Don't butt your head against a wall" or 'Blocking
up
the well after the calf is drowned,"
all,
and the
figures
seem
some eigluy in
same action
in their aim of
to repeat the
over and over as proverbs do, failing
preventing man's tendency to do
silly things.
This accumulative imagery
fitting
always attacks individual pride as egoism, but
opposite
and the pious. In the second, the endless games
hoop rolling, hair pulling, going aroinid the mul-
is
then revised by
being given a slightly larger-scale central focus,
while yet retaining the suggestions of mechanistic
behavior. In the
Triumph of Death ^°-
on the horse, out of
the skeleton
Diirer, holds the center, while
he leads a Holbein-like dance of skeletons seizing a
mother and baby,
cardinal, a
skeletal
lovers,
and
so on,
and
armies march through the open world.
In the .\pocalypse scene of the
(1562)"'-*
War
in
between angels and the dragon
Heaven
devil, the
traditionally posed Saint Michael coordinates the
fantasy of
swarming doomed
creatures;
and Dulle
Griet (1562)"''' illustrates a folk tale about
"Mad
.Meg." a greedy giant scavenger followed by tumults
of grasping
copy
and
women. Only
Boscii's
images of
these latter two paintings
fires
and squelchy monsters,
in this period of self-revision Bruegel
ing on
many models,
as noted. In the
was lean-
same year he
further reinforces iniity of aim, while
still
being
PlETER BrlECEL.
512.
The Tower of Babil. 1563.
Panel,
45"x6i".
Kunsthistorisches
Museum,
Vienna
and still bonouiiig, this time from Lucas
Leyden and from Altdorfei, in the Suicide of
King Srti/Z.'o^ Here the mass of men, the mindless
aiiiiheroic
vail
liei
d of the spear tarrying army, is funneled along a
path across the center, while the king (whose
>iiigle
had
insanity
on
also struck the attention of Lucas) falls
his spear in a front corner,
unknown
to
them. As
the lances in a line do there, endlessly spiraling
make
pillars
the lowfi of Babel (1563;
ligln structure. This
sage of
fig.
512) a
meaningless object has the mes-
human ambition
to
match God, soon pun-
ished by the biith of confused babbling languages.
In 1563 Bruegel, who had li\ed in .\ntwerp,
moved from
there and from his publisher,
and
there-
on painting only.
stibtle, and airy in
after concentrated, in Brussels,
,\t
once
his
work giows
thin,
and suggestively expansive in spate. In CinisI
CunyingUif Cross (1564)""' the mourning group of
color,
the three Marys, in larger scale in the corner, again
outlasts witii the thousands of other people, in-
I
i
hiding the unnoticed Christ
at
the center (an idea
the
unity
latter
more and moie, along with
is
larger scale.
The
emphatic in the Adoration of the Magi
(156.J).""
tile
first
work made out of big
figures,
caricatured peasants suggesting that they are Bottom
his friends
botching a diuiih play.
most relied on in the famous Hnnlrrs
in the Snow (colorplate 59), Corn Harvesters, ^'^^anA
Return of the Herd (all 1565). '"^ which to us can
is
easily look like
pure landscape views but are actually
^January, .August, and No-
calendar illustrations
vember
—
i.e.,
—
an old-fashioned demonstration of
the automatism of nature's cycle.
many
cases are
from the back
focus the
and the
made more
as they
more on
The
figures in
typifying by being seen
perform their jobs, and we
frozen ponds, ripe wheat fields,
forest, lyrically
celebrated by Bruegel's new-
The most powerful unity of air is in two
snow scenes. The Adoration of the Magi (1567)""
thin color.
occurs during a snowfall, bluning our focus, with a
long train of attendants as in the International
this theme, and the Sumhering
Bethlehem (1566)'" catches the barely visible
Joseph and Man- getting in line to be counted in
Gothic tradition of
at
thecensusand pay their taxes. a drastic new metaphor
of the nonindividual
used long before bv the Master of Mary of Burgundy),
but all are absorbed atmospherically into the deep
sandy landscape and evoke the sense of an excursion
into the country. Bruegel now pursues this kind of
Weaver and
Unity of air
are
life.
From 1566 on, compositions with large figures
favored more and more. The Pea.\anl Wedding
Dance,^^^ a crowd of bulky jingly hicks responding
to a stimulus,
Feast
(fig.
is
51;!)-
remodeled
Its
in the
feasant Weitding
diagonal feast table, with big
servants working in front of it,
bonows
Tintoretto's
Supper composition with similar intent (see
301; Bruegel had traveled in Italy with Marten
last
fig.
407
PlETER BrUEGEL.
513-
Peasant Wedding Feasl.
Panel, 45' x 64".
Kunsthistorisches
Museum.
Vienna
PlETER BrIEGEL
314.
The Blind Leading
the
Blind. 1568.
Canvas, 34" x 61".
Museo Nazionale
di
Capodimonte,
Naples
de
\'os,
an admirer of TintorettoV
The crude
powerful in Bruegel's only immobile creature. The
man who
more imaginative in Cloud Cuckoo Ijind
{1567), "3 where fat men lie and wait for sweets to
fall in their mouths, and the complementary Crippled Lepers (1568),"'' who beg on a day when it is
permitted. At last, in ijfiH. Bruegel could make his
unchanging point in a way that seems a denial of it,
bv represeining a single monumental figure. The
Misanthrope (1568), '^^ the
Peasant and
uglv and pathetic creature repeats his predecessor,
comedy
erb:
is
"He
I
lie
that
knows; he that
AVi("* illustrates the provknows where the bird's nest is,
Bird's
steals
it,
has
it."
Our hero walks
along in the fresh weather and gives us hints of his
knowledge, but he does not see or know the small
thief.
408
Humanity compressed
into one person
is
most
hates every-
thing, hiding austerely in his black coat, while a
small figure robs
him and confirms
his
judgment
not his procedures. .Monumental mobility
realized in the Blind Leading the Blind (1568;
-,
a
14),
where one parable does the work
this
.\s
that this will continue to the end.
world will not mitigate
its
force;
fig.
that required
hundred proverbs wlien Bruegel began.
we know
if
totally
is
Bruegel
each
The
tells
us
louder than ever, but also with a pity and sensi-
livitv that
have grown steadilv while he, very
an individual, reviewed and remade himself.
much
The Move from Antwerp
44-
Antwerp inaiiuained
status as the distiibiition
its
center for style in the next generation after the Fioris
under the similar hegemony of the painter
brothers,
Marten de Vos (1532-1603). He spent
youth mainly
visit to Italy as a
modified his teacher Frans
his standard
in Venice,
Fioris'
and he
Michelangelism
by imitating Tintoretto, whose procedures could so
easily
be translated into formulas. \el despite
this
The
Haarlem
to
Fioris
ornament stimulated
a
whole school of
still a town
Wenzel Jamnitzer (1508-1585) and
other makers of goblets and treasure chests were
citizens of the merchant town but, like the por-
goldsmiths and jewelers in Nuremberg,
of metal
traitists
crafts.
with
whom
they share
epoch, worked for the
were
little
dominate German
to
German
art of this
luxurious courts that
next two
for the
life
infusion of sensuousness into the anatomical com-
centuries.
positions of Antwerp, the formula grew more and
more desiccated. The key role of prints and especially
the north often got commissions for an altarpiece
print publishers
is
significant.
Thegreatest of them,
Jerome Cock, employed a number of engravers at
his shop, the Four Winds; they worked from drawings by painters, and he sent out quantities of illustrated books, popular religious prints, maps, and
travel scenes.
their w'ork
is
The most
the Mannerist female
Tintoretto and
Fioris'
flat
Fontainebleau;
interlocked
technically splendid in
surface.
for
obvious recurrent type in
Model books
figure
smooth
nude
that echoes
they also retain
and are
and luminous
dramas,
line
provided vast circulation
also
individual .-Vntwerp artists are
less inter-
esting than various reflections of their export trade.
515.
Jan VAX DER Strae
(Giovanni Stradano).
Tht Hunt.
Tapestry, 13' x i6'9".
Camera
d'Ercole,
Palazzo Vecchio. Florence
1
who
artists
or two there, and after
traveled to Italy from
550 some became permanent
1
They could supply
demanding particular
residents.
jects
genre
—
that Italian artists
Italian patrons increasingly
the specialized sub-
realism
—landscape,
found insignificant but
amusing. Ludwig Toe-
put (docs. 1584-1603) painted landscapes as part of
large palace schemes of decoration near X'enice,
was renamed Pozzoserrato. Jan van der Straet
(
1
1605), as Stradanus, took care of tapestries
hunting scenes
(fig.
515),
for the
Calvaert
Medici court
at
and
523-
and
Florence
where ofcourse the sculptor Giambologna
was the great model
Cornells Fioris' ornamental patterns.
The
The young
for such
(1540-1619),
altarpieces,
immigrants. Denis
with standard
dominated painting
in
Floris-type
Bologna along
astronomers Tycho Brahe and Kepler) and the
most
artificial, toylike
His
courts.
(d.1593), a
favorite
painters
were
.\rcimboldo
Milanese painter of trick pictures
human heads
or flowers,
court art even of Mannerist
discoverable in arrangements of fruit
and the
like
—and Spranger, who lived
exalted giandeur in Prague for the rest of his
in
life.
From studying Parmigianino and Giambologna he
had e\olved the perfectly Mannerist female nude,
like
and
an engraving in
its
its
precise,
shiny, brittle texture,
complex outline
and with extraordinary
in\oluted poses, titillating smiles, and erotic subjects (fig. 516).
tainebleau.
of
amusing
it is
More than
Primaticcio's art at Fon-
the criterion of this hothouse breed
once had
a whole school
Munich, and a more
Haarlem. There at the end of the
artifice. It at
of imitators at the court of
interesting
one
at
century a Dutch variation on the .\ntwerp formula
suggests,
once again, a more colorful and airy
revi-
sion of an official Flemish style.
Hendrick Goltzius (1558-16]
7)
learned en-
Bartolomeus Spranger.
5i6.
Hercules and Omphale.
Copper, 9 1/2" x
7 1/2".
Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
with the Italian portraitist Passerotti. Calvaert and
the younger landstapist Paul Brill are basic to the
formation of the
first
Baroque
gieat
painters, the
who moved from Bologna to Rome, and
indeed late in the century the mood and situation
among artists in Antwerp and Rome are very similar.
The Italian Federigo Zuccaro is like Marten de \os
CaiTacci,
in
being
a leader
of an
artists'
mulgator of high-class theory,
a
High Renaissance formulas of
community, a proreworker of several
figure drawing,
and
a very limited talent.
The most
interesting
Antwerp emigrant was
Bartolomeus Spranger (1546-1(111), w'ho went to
Italy at nineteen and never returned home. During
ten Italian vears. mainly in
Rome and
Parma,
lie
helped complete an inteniipted fiesco project which
made him
familiar with the
work of Parmigianino.
Obviously bright, he was recommended by Giam
bologna to the Habsburgs
Vienna and then
Emperor Rudolf
in
II
as a
court painter,
first
in
Prague. There the eccentric
amused himself with alchemy
(which by accident led him to support the great
517.
New
410
HeNDRIK GOLTZRS.
The Standard Bearer. 1587.
Engraving, I2"x8". Metropolitan
Museum
York. Gift of Robert Hartshorne, igrS
of Art,
graving in
Haarlem on Antwerp meiluxls, and
became the
particular master of the swelling line, a
of the local realism.
The most famous
Slandard Bearer (1587;
fig.
result
is
the
317), a smiling soldier
long curve thai imperceptibly widens and then
narrows, and thus is beautifully adapted to the sharp
carrying a huge pennant, a gleamingly flamboyant
drawing of the human body in movement. It was
his luck to see drawings by Spranger at the right
position.
moment, which he at once reproduced in engravings
His own originals are even surer and more sweeping,
toning down the elegaiu artifice with some infusion
werp tradition were
Thus
life
with a sufficiently stvlish com-
Goltzius and Spranger demonstrated
that in 1600 the Mannerist tradition
so
than a
and the
alive as ever, perhaps
as
Greco
El
courtly or International Gothic painting had
its way out of medieval traditions in Spain
1440 and followed Franco-Flemish patterns,
just as it did in many other places. Of the many
worked
after
similar Spanish altarpieces the most attractive
George and
SainI
I
lie
Dragon
by Bernardo Martorell (docs.
trates a quality
(fig.
1
is
518), probably
't illus-
433-' 453)-
long persistent in the painting of
Spain, Germany, and the back hill provinces of
Italy. Copying the International Gothic or a later
style, in the
copy
way
a pattern
cabinetmaker might
a fine local
from
a center of fashion,
it
wipes
away the overtones of wit and feeling, and empha
sizes the flat panel and the bright color areas, the
expert gold tooling and contour drawing, alwavs on
the edge of falling back out of Renaissance imagerv
into the craftsmanship of medieval church furniture.
Such
is
a relationship to
Flemish Renaissance painting
seen in the finest Iberian achievement of the
century, the altarpiece of Saint Vincent by
Gongalves (docs. 1450-1471),
Discarding space,
steely
texture,
it
their
presents
in
its
Lisbon
519).
rows of figures
inflexibly
faces
Nuno
(fig.
ironed
in
flat.
Painters at this time were lucky to have Dirk Bouts'
art available as their
model;
his repressed,
angular
people, incapable of a liberating gesture, lend them
selves to this
traits
dehumanized draining, Nuno's porHenry the Navigator and others
here of Prince
(reminding us that this is Portugal's moment in
world history) acquire a serious weightiness even
more abstracted from the Flemish models than
Fouquet's portraits are.
me Huguet
A
Spanish parallel
is
Jai-
(docs. 1448-1487), a painter of simple,
Bernardo .Martorfil
ji8.
St.
George and the Dragon.
Panel, 56" x 38". .\ri Institute. Chicago.
The Charles Dcering
Gift of
.Ant-
more
and hence worthy of the
young Baroque artists.
little earlier,
revolt of the
Painting and Sculpture in Spain before
45.
A
image out of real
Collection.
Mr. and Mrs. R.E. Danielson and
Mrs. Chauncev
McCormick
Pacher's (seep. 331).
Juan de Borgona
'
#J&^
closest
the French immigrant
1495-1553) designs open
platforms for his altarpieces,
Renaissance space
whose
Still later
(docs.
analogy
is
with his contemporary
Marco Palmezzano, a provincial follower of Melozzo
da Forli.
The continuing
ers
significance
a
likeness
between these paint-
of Spain and Italian ones of very secondary
from remote
areas, outside the scope of
general overview, prompts the small space given
here to Spanish
art,
tendency
it
to give
contrary to our instinctive
as we turn to a
Our spontaneous
more weight
different section of the world.
admiration of these Spanish primitives for hard
stylization.and the belief that this had a sophisticated
aesthetic purpose (as with .American colonial portraits),
can continue only in ignorance of the urbane
FlemisJ!
the
models which they were constantly emulat-
There
ing.
name
is
also a problematic
element when, in
of the widest aesthetic freedom,
an art so committed to a standard
set
we admire
of formulas.
Spanish painters learned of Flanders by travel,
or through the arrival in Spain of paintings by
Rogier van der
case
Weyden and
of sculptors, minor
other masters. In the
Flemish, German, and
French craftsmen came to Spain to work, and Spanish
519.
NUNO GONQALVES.
St. Vincent
Panel, 82
Venerated by the Royal Family-
"x
51".
Museu Nacional de Arte Amiga, Lisbon
strongly passive people in separate situations, setting
a Bouts type against a gold patterned ground.
The
widely traveled Bartolome Bermejo (docs. 14741498), in a
younger generation, seems
translating
Memling
to
begin by
into polished cubes, but then,
affected perhaps by the importance of
movement
through space and shadow in the
Bouts and
Gerard David,
his late Pietti
(fig.
later
520) and
C.lihsl's
Descent into /^/m/^o'"' are the most emphatic dramas
yet seen in Spanish painting, with
complex reaching
gestures that introduce a startling "Baroque" pathos
into the rectangular figures. But the standard tech-
nique of simple bright color areas continues
for
Pedro Berruguete
(docs.
to
1483-d. 1503),
seems to have assisted Joos van Gent in
returned
home
to
work
who
Italy,
paint spaceless and depthless
copies from him, and later to have evolved a kind of
abstracted pattern of perspective lines strangely like
412
520.
Bartolome BtRMKjo,
Panel, 74" x 6g".
,,1
R,„»lnn,
I'ltla.
Renaissance sculpture had
flourished quantitatively in
a
stronger growth.
enormous
It
altarpieces.
built onto the choir walls of churches, consisting of
dozens of little panels richly ornamented like Mcxjrish and plalrresio buildings. They were still being
built well into the sixteenth century.
original sculpture was
The most
on tombs, whose
portrait
muscles through three dimensions, indeed suggesting pulled wax. The figures of the Toledo Cathedral
choir
reliefs,
boxed
in their frames
on blank back-
grounds, blow thinly to one side like
round group
is
sails. .\ full-
even more spectacular, when the
figures of the Tratisfiguralion
seem tossed upward
from a base of stormy ocean waves
(fig.
522). All of
simply adapt Flemish realism with great
geometric strength. The most remarkable single
effigies
tomb, carved
in
1489 by Sebastian de .\linonacid
1494-1527) for the constable De Luna and
his wife,'" is a reduction of the French type by
.Michel Colombe, with four large kneeling monks
(docs.
set
pyramidally
at the
corners in contrast with flour-
ishing Gothic decoration.
.\
greater personality, Gil
de Siloe (docs. 1486-1499), began in 1489 to carve
the royal tombs at Burgos, and used the most impressive of models, Nicolaus Gerhaert's imperial
tomb
at
Vienna, .\gain he simplifies and shifts to
emphasizing a surface studded with
craft patterns,
carved jewels as an opeinvork outer layer, while
holes of shadow further enrich the texture visually.
As the sculptors draw closer to their models in
space and reduced time lag, the talented Bartolome
Ordonez (docs. 151 7-d. 1520) in his Barcelona choir
stalls (fig.
521) produced the
first
adequate transla-
tion into sculpture, anywhere, of Raphael's late
(The reliefs can be directly compared with
work of Lorenzetto, Raphael's executant in
sculpture, and are much stronger and more sweeping.) Ordonez can manipulate crowds that twine
through depth with dramatic evocation and rhythm.
He spent most of his time in Naples and at the
Carrara marble quarries, and his later work in Spain
style.
the
indicates a gradual loss of tension into a routinely
nervous Raphaelesque
521.
Bartolome Ord6nez.
Enlombmtnl 0/ Christ. 1518.
VS'ood, vi-idth inside frame 13"
Cathedral, Barcelona
line.
After that the appearance of a truly original
artist
with continuously self-assured
Berruguete (docs. i504-d.i56i),
when
In his youth,
in Florence,
is
he
is
style, .\lonso
not surprising.
known
to
have
these surprising, dislocated, and elastic images are
authentically sculptural, and at the same time their
of the
made a wax copy of the Laocodii, and this experience
soft invertebrate medium and of the most
melodramatic monument of classical prestige may
wild religious tension and their sticky textures
make them genuine foretastes of El Greco. That
have been decisive. Having settled in the royal town
of folk version of his
of Valladolid, he carved (1527-32) the altar of .San
Benito,"** including a series of saints recalling his
by Juan de \'almaseda (docs. 1516-1548). These
emaciated grief-stricken figures with simplified
Berruguete was not isolated
style, in
is
suggested by a kind
the
wooden Calvtin'-"
Benedikt
parallel folds in their robes suggest in theory a l^te
Dreyer, but w'ith none of his Gothic trace elements,
Gothic tradition, but do not resemble anvihing
of anticipating the Rococo. The
Gothic in particular.
The French immigiant juan de Juni (dcKS.
sophisticated
and lacking
German
little
contemporary
thin figures assert their anguish by straining their
4i:<
522.
Alonso Berrlguete.
Transfiguration. 1543-48.
.Mabasler; height including
cornice
i
i'8".
height of Christ 5'5".
C'hnir of Cathedral,
i536-d.i577), a talent of equal authority
bizarre indivitduality,
tells
if less
us that Berruguete was
not an isolated sport as to quality either. Juan's
generally Michelangelesque background has close
links to Michelangelo's assistant Montorsoli,
worked
in
terracotta,
who
Spanishowned Sicily. He first worked
and retains his clay-modeling effect
in
in
grander works, with painterly gradations of flowing
surface
and wriggling
stormy undulations.
folds in
The grand manner in which the fleshy figures behave
involves tearful
pressures,
Dolorosa
mon
and
(fig.
melodrama
his
in
its
heavy curling
most expressive work
is
523). She suggests that there
a
is
Maler
a
com-
factor in Juni. Berruguete, the mystic Saint
Theresa of .\vila, the soldier-saint Ignatius Loyola,
and King Philip Us fortress-monastery of the Escorial,allstrongphenomena
in thesixteenth-century
Spain whose unique emphasis on Catholicism played
so large a role in
Painting
Europe.
time was again
at this
less rich.
Pedro
Machuca, before he became Emperor Charles \"s
architect, painted a Madonna'^' in Italy that was a
more than provincial rendering of Raphael, with a
High Renaissance softness and a religious firmness
not equaled in his later work, nor by any other
Spanish "Romanist
"
painters.
Of
these the most
conspicuous was Pedro de Campatia (1503-1580).
414
Toledo
Juan DE JuNi. .Wfl(«r Do/oroja. 1560.
Painted wood, height 48".
523.
Nuestra Seftora de
Valladolid
las
Angustias,
an immigiain from Flanders via north
Italy,
ofTered Spain a metallic, tight version of the
who
Man-
an abstracted copy of Floris and
remote and minor town near the
Portuguese border, Badajoz, sheltered the one extraordinary Spanish painter of this century, Luis de
nerist anatomies,
But
Salviati.
a
Morales (docs. i546-d.i586).
a single
Christ, with sallow skin
rapidly evolved
and cheeks shadowed
almost ghastly refinement of
(fig.
He
kind of image, a face of Mary or of the dead
soft transitional
in
tones
524); he repeated this sickly pious type over
in related compositions,
and over
when most geometric and most
most
effective
passively contempla-
Christ gazing at the cross. His style gained
tive, as in
him the religious accolade of "the divine Morales" from some and made him distasteful to others,
for
in a revulsion
much
like that felt
Sodoma, with w'hom he shares
toward the
a debt to
style of
Leonardo.
Yet even though he seems "typically Spanish" in his
single-minded piousness, no one around him created
so distinctive a statement. .\nd his spindly figures
and otherworldly expressions make him,
part of the background of El Greco.
hisii
524-
DE Morales.
too.
a
Pteta.
Panel, 49"/ 37".
Accademia de S. Fernando, Madrid
46.
El Greco
Domenikos Theotokopoulos (1541-1614) was born
and grew up in Crete, an island owned as a colony
by Venice but Byzantine in culture and Greek
Orthodox
in religion.
longed to a
Roman
He may.
however, have be-
at twenty-five,
learned of Byzantine icon types in Crete, but the
was not
it
Titian's style, at this date colorlessly thin
and brown,
Jacopo Bassano's. Bassano was
richest style, which leans on
own
Parmigianinos long-limbed people who do not even
pretend to be
real,
and
high coloristic charge.
ing,
It
yet
is still
finds
the X'enetian
There he
worked under Titian (1567-70) but
then evolving his
all in
terms of airy breathing motion and beauty. El Greco used all these technical resources, if not their
expressive implications, throughout his career. The
glowing color may well have reinforced what he had
already a painter, he went to Venice.
that he imitated, but
dancing action, and candlelight,
when he was
Catholic minority linked to the
governing power, and
greens of clothing emerging from shadowy spaces,
X'enetian in
enjovment
in
its
gleam
rather pasty surfaces, liigh-keyed pinks and
is opposed to them; in adopting that. El
Greco renounced his native background for high
mobility
modern
culture.
Soon he tried out Rome, and the surviving
token of his modest success there is a brilliant, com'^pletely Bassanesque portrait of an older artist.
with a flickering smile and a landscape behind him.
He was
also
remembered
for his
remark
that, if
41.^
He made
statement in a series of rich
his
Virgin
altarpieces, the Assumptioii of the
(1577;
525) and the Slripping of Christ (i577-79)»"
among others. They are like Bassano in color rhythm,
fig.
and the
figures are not
more elongated than
the texture has changed. Pastiness
that
it
is
his,
but
enhanced, so
seems to suggest neither form nor light on
The
form, but only paint.
suggest sketchily
a
capricious shapes also
modeled clay
figures.
The paintlike
surface was probablv stimulated by Titian's last
works, though the specific texture
field
is
different, not a
of vibration but wide oily streaks; clay figures
were used
as
models by Tintoretto and by El Greco,
but only Greco allows them to transmit the clayey
The
effect to the painting.
preference for forms over
representation, leading to airless constructions, was
equally
marked
but in them
it is
Fontainebleau Mannerists,
in the
in the context of a court
art.
The
ornament
than Greco's sketchy color
far less interesting to us
may be
definition of El Greco's originality
the effect of airless manipulation within the \'enetian vocabulary of airy life.
We easily overstate the religious and emotional
extremism of El Greco.
He
is
often supposed to
German expreswho quite
have been rescued from neglect by
sionists in the early twentieth century,
often
made elongated
figures a vehicle of anguish.
But he had actually been admired several genera-
Eugene Delacroix, who made pasty
tions before by
color a spark for motion, and by J. F. Millet, a builder of clavey form. Conversely, emaciated or dema-
more
terialized figures of hysteria are
central to
who even so have remained
El Greco. It may be that the
Berruguete and .Morales,
unrediscovered, than to
3.3-
Llo.....
vibrant power of his Venetian color has a larger
Aisumption of the Virgin. 1577.
Canvas,
Gift of
I'i'i"
x
7'6".
in
memorv
been thought.
to the
just as well
and with more moral
decency, an indication that he shared the strong
piety of the
Counter Reformation.
It is
not surpris-
ing that he next tried Spain, the place where foreign
artists
were most honored
Catholic energies.
He
as well as the center of
settled in
Toledo, the
dence of the chief archbishop, and never
He
left,
resi-
soon
is
certainly a
moderate compared
Cross,
and has
little
relation to their
written imagery of very live flesh transmuted into
God,
become
pole of the process.
identity with
at either
Feelings do
violent in his paintings, as in
Pontormo's, w-hen the theme demands them
we
—again
are being proffered a sensitive concern with the
exposition of assigned themes. But
we can only
emotional excitation in neutral themes
Madonnas, or heads of
—
saints.
El
—
find
portraits.
Greco's most
we supply an expressionist
of our own; without that, we record colorisiic
achieving local success and the nickname El Greco
frequent images
("the" in Spanish; "Greek" in Italian).
flavor
416
and the
Spanish mystics of his century. Saints Theresa
and John of the
Michelangelo's Last Judgnieut were destroyed, he
it
in Greco's art,
soulful overtones a slighter one, than has sometimes
of
Robert Arnold Sprague
could redo
and
part in our reaction
Art Institute, Chicago.
Nancy Atwood Sprague
if
3^
52t).
hi
Greco. The Bunat of the Counl of Orgaz. 158&-88. Canvas,
i6'
\
i
ft
iio. Sanlo Tome, Toledo
biilliante steeped
Bassanos Maniieii'it figuie
in
late
especially
years,
masterpiece
types.
In altarpieces depthlessiiess
much
in Titian as in
assist
the action of his color,
bumpy
is
traditional, as
Pontormo. El Greco makes
This
relief surface.
is
it
meandering over the
most striking
Burial of the Count of Orgaz (1586-88;
in the
fig.
526)
among
new
those with
these,
and
tliemes.
a rare case of
,\
an un-
repealed theme, shows Saint John, in the .\pocalypse, watching the
(1608-14;
fig.
Opening of
527), with
and dancing unreal
its
the
Pifth
glowing unreal
Seal
light
angel. Ever further from nature,
like other isolated geniuses. El
Greco now
when
is
insisting
first
modern
which, with proper ritual formality, records a local
on Mannerism
came down from heaven to
help bury the pious count, who had left a bequest to
the church). If we link him strongly to \ enetian and
masters of the Baroque had worked and died. Vet
remarkable
well as ever, so that he can express pleasure in
medieval miracle
other
Italian
(saints
traditions,
El
Greco's
landscapes also no longer seem extraneous to his
at
a time
the
this final assertion of an obsolete style
is
but an expert's reaffirmation that
is
celebrating
it
it.
central concerns. City views are in the tradition of
Diirer and Heemskerck, except that El Greco is
making records of the city he lived in, not the me-
mentos of
a traveler to Italy as those artists' views
527.
mostly are; but then El Greco was a foreigner in
Toledo. Visually
landscapes depend on
his
the
Giorgionesque landscape tradition of toned atmospheric flow of color, modified to capricious shapes
and shimmers. Indeed the more famous of
views of Toledo (colorplate 60)
sor of Giorgione's 'I'empest.
He
is
his
two
the truest succes-
gave the second the
—building on the other Venetian
tradition of Jacopo
Barbari
229) —and
form of
a map'-'*
de'
(see
a
fig.
long inscription explaining that some landmarks
had
to
size, location, and lighting. It is
we have to a statement from tiie artist
method of work.
be altered in
the nearest
about
his
El
Greco was
a great local success in
church
images, and repeated his saints and compositions
over and over again.
the
He
clearly attached himself to
Church establishment,
on Michelangelo
in
just as in his
Rome and
comment
his choice of the
cathedral town of Toledo. In this he
is
unlike Saint
John of the Cross, whose puritanical reformism took
him to prison. El Greco's later works build on the
stylistic habits of the earlier ones, and the figures
now are indeed more elongated than in any other
Mannerist artist, while the textures become softer
and more gently brushed. This seems to apply only
to the
418
few works that he painted personally in his
El Greco.
Si.
John's Vision oj the
Mysteriis of the Apocalypse.
Canvas, 7'3"x6'4".
Metropolitan
New York
Museum
of Art,
Rogers Fund, 1956
not a fading
working
as
Supplementary Notes to Part Three
Matteo Giovanetti,
1.
frescoes of the
life
of St. Martial, Chapel
of St. Martial, Palace of the Popes, Avignon.
Jacques Daret, .Valivilji, Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection,
Lugano; Adoration of the Magi and Visitation, Staatliche Muscen,
20.
Berlin-Dahlem
2.
Maitre aux Boquetaux, two illuminations
;
Presentation in the Temple. Petit Palais, Paris.
Works of
in
Guillaume de Mackaul. Biblioth^que Naiionale, Paris.
Andre Beauneveu. tombs in Abbey Church, St. Denis: King
3.
Philip VI Kingjean leBon; Queenjeannede Bourgogne: King
;
Rogier van dcr Weyden, four panels of legends of Trajan
21.
and Herkinbald, formerly Town Hall, Brussels (destroyed by
free copy preserved in tapestry. Historical Museum,
fire, 1695)
;
Berne.
Charles V.
22.
Andre Beauneveu, Psalter of the DukeofBerry, Bibliotheque
4.
Dirk Bouts, Last Supper, side panel of Cominunion altar-
piece (see colorplate 47;,
Nationale, Paris.
23.
Master of the
5.
Porfraifn/,
supervisor of book illustrations, Tris
Belles Heures de Notre Dame. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Jean Bondol. design
6.
Musce
for tapestries of
Book of Revelation,
now
lost;
to
Paradise panels: center
wings, Hell and Paradise,
Musee
The Louvre,
Paris).
des Beaux-Arts, Lille {Hell on loan from
24.
Joos van Gent,
Crucifixion.
Cathedral of
St.
Bavo, Ghent.
des Tapisseries, Angers.
25.
7.
Dirk Bouts, altarpiece with H'aj
panel. Last Judgment,
Jean de Cambrai, tomb of Duke John of Berry, crypt of
Hugo van
from drawing
der Goes, Jacob and Rachel,
in
painting
lost
known
Library of Christ Church, Oxford.
Cathedral, Bourges (from the Sainte Chapelle).
26.
Jacquemart de Hesdin,
8.
known
Berry (also
Les Tris Belles Heures of the
as Les Trfs Belles Heures of Brussels
Duke of
.
Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Magi
(surviving portion
of Monforte altarpiece), Staatliche Museen, Berlin-Dahlem.
Biblio-
thdque Royale, Brussels.
27.
Hugo \an
der Goes, Adoration of
Staatliche
the Shepherds,
Muscen, Berlin-Dahlem.
Tomb
9.
of the count and countess of Mortain,
The Louvre,
28.
Paris.
Geertgen
tot Sint Jans, Christ Carrying the Cross,
Archiepisco-
pal .Museum, Utrecht.
Master of the Tfebon Wittingaui .Altarpiece, panels of
(now dismembered National Gallery. Prague.
10.
altarpiece
1
1.
,
Jean Delemer and Robert C:ampin, Annunaalwn.
St.
Geertgen tot Sim Jans, Madonna of the Rosary, Boymaits-van
29.
Beuningen Museum, Rotterdam.
Marie
.Madeleine, Tournai.
30.
Hans Memling, Shrine of St. Ursula, Hospital of St. John,
Bruges.
Anthony and Paul, Kunstntuseum,
12.
Master of 1445,
t3.
Fra Filippo Lippi, Madonna and Child (formerU Tarquinia
5/^.
Basel.
31.
Madonna), Galleria Nazionale, Palazzo Barberini, Rome.
32.
Jean Fouquet,
Pteta.
Church, Nouans.
Petrus Christus, Pieta. Musces
Royaux
des Bcaux-.Ans,
Brussels,
14.
Stefan
Richartz
15.
Lochner,
Madonna
in
Rose
the
Bower,
Wallraf-
Museum, Cologne.
Stefan
Lochner,
Presentation
in
the
Temple.
Hessisches
Landesmuseum, Darmstadt.
33.
Jean Fouquet. Jouvenel
34.
Jan van Eyck,
des Vrsins,
The Lou\re,
Paris.
Cardinal Nicholas Albergatt, silverpoini dvi
ing, Kupferstichkabinelt, Dresden.
The Lou\re,
16.
Rogier \an der Weyden.
17.
Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgment triptych, Musee de
.-Innuncialton.
Paris
35.
Jean Fouquet, Jouvenel
des Vrsins.
drawing, Kupferstich-
kabincil, Berlin-Dahlem.
rHoiel-Dieu, Beaune.
18.
Rogier van der We\den, Braque triptych. The Louvre,
School of .\\'ignon, Boulbon altarpiece. The Louvre, Paris,
37.
Nicolas
Froment,
Rauing
of Lazarus,
Utfizi
Gallerv',
Florence.
Paris.
Rogier van der Weyden, Bladelin
19.
Museen, Berlin-Dahlem.
36.
altarpiece. Staatliche
38.
Martin and Gcorg von Klausenburg,
Hradiany
St.
George,
on the
(beside the Caihedralt, Prague.
W-.i
Nicolaus Gerhaert, tomb slab for Archbishop Jacob von
39-
Sierck. Bischofliches
Museum,
40.
Nicolaus Gerhaert.
41.
Statues of Charles
Trier.
Crucifix,
IVilches' Sabbath,
61.
Hans Baldung Grien.
Christ with Angels,
62.
Jerg Ratgeb,
63-
Jerg Ratgeb, Circumcision, inner wing of Herrenberger
chiaroscuro wood-
cut.
Old Cemeter\-, Baden-Baden.
IV and
Hans Baldung Grien,
60.
empress. Marienkirche,
his
Si.
woodcut.
Barbara altarpiece, Schwaigern.
Miihlhausen.
nave of Cathedral. Wiener Neusiadt.
altarpiece (see
42.
Apostles,
43.
Busts from the hospital of St. Mar.x. Strasbourg (now in
Musee de I'Oeuvre, Notre- Damej
Tomb
44.
64.
fig.
Hans Leu,
4431.
Orpheus Playing
to the
Kunsimuseum.
Animals,
Basel.
of Princess Isabel of Bourbon, originally in abbey
of St. Michel, .\ntwerp: bronze effigy
now
in
Antwerp Ca-
65.
Nicolas
Manuel Deulsch, Pyramus
by
.\iourned
Thisbe.
Kunstmtiseum, Basel.
thedral; ten bronze portrait statuettes in Rijksmuseum, Amster-
Nicolas Manuel Deutsch,
Kunstmuseum, Basel.
dam.
66.
Hausbuch Master, 60
45.
The
Beheading
of
St.
John,
dr\points. Rijksmuseum, .Amster-
dam.
67.
Urs Graf, Pregnant Woman and Hanged
Kunstmuseum,
.\ian,
Basel.
46.
Simon Lainbcrger
47.
Gregor Erhart, Blaubeuren altarpiece. Benedictine Mon-
?
,
Crucifixion, Si.
George, Nordlingen.
68.
astery,
Blaubeuren.
Triumphal Arch of Maximilian, woodcut,
blocks
blocks
center panel
now
in
designed by Diirer, executed by
Procession of Maximilian,
-Andreas Morgenstern, altarpiece for the convent at Zwetil.
48.
,
I.
executed by
many
artists,
X9'
among whom
(in
192
Triumphal
numerous
Burgkmair was
woodcut, length over 177'
(in
important.
Hans Holbein, Madonna
Landesmuseum, Darmstadt.
69.
family of painters, the Katzheimers, and
trated by the
11'
artists.
church of Adamsthal, Czechoslovakia.
This type of painting was produced by the dominant local
49.
many
anonymous Hersbruck
is
with the Meyer Family, Hessisches
also notably illus-
altarpiece.
70.
Hans Holbein,
Georg Gisze, Staatliche Museen, Berlin-
Dahlem.
Veil Stoss, altarpiece of the Virgin (made for a Carmelite
50.
monastery, Nuremberg), Cathedral, Bamberg.
7
.Albrechl Diirer, Feast of the Rose Garlands National Gallery-,
5!.
,
Prague.
.Albrechl DiiTcr, Assumption
52.
ctf the
Virgin (Heller altarpiece;,
formerly in Dominican Church, Frankfurt
destroyed by
fire,
1 .
Hans Holbein, The Ambassadors, National
Gerard Da\id,
Genoa.
72.
73.
Crucifixion.
Gallery% London.
Palazzo Bianco,
Galleria di
Gerard David, Judgment of Cambyses : Seizure of
Groeninge Museum, Bruges.
the
Judge.
Flaying of Sisamnes.
1729).
74.
Erasmus of Rollerdam,
53.
of
the Christian Knight),
Enchiridion mtlitis christiani
human
proportion:
Vnderweisung der Messung mit dem ^irckel und Richtscheyt [Course
the
Simon Marmion,
altarpiece
of
Si.
Benin,
Staatliche
.Museen. Berlin-Dahlem.
1503.
Durer's writings on perspective and
54.
[Manual
Art of Measurement unth Compass and Ruler), 1525: Vier Biicher
von Menschlicher Proportion (Four Books on
Human
Proportion),
75.
Jerome Bosch. The
76.
Jerome
Seven Deadly Sins.
The Prado, Madrid.
in
1528
55.
.Albrecht Durer. The Harbor at Antwerp. .Albertina, \'ienna.
56.
Passion altarpiece,
57.
Matthias Griinewald, Mocking of
Bosch,
The
Conjurer,
.Musee
.Municipal
Saini-
Germain-en-Laye.
77.
Jerome Bosch, The Garden
of Earthly Delights,
The Prado,
Madrid.
Museum, Rothenburg.
78.
Christ,
Alte Pinakoihek,
Munich.
58.
.Albrecht .Altdorfer, .Nativity, Staatliche Museen, Berlin-
Dahlem.
59.
.Albrechl Altdorfer, Resurrection, from the Passion of Christ,
altarpiece of St. Florian, Monastery of St. Florian (near Linz).
420
Queniin Massys, Erasmus, Galleria Nazionale, Peilazzo
Rome; Pelrus Aegidius, Earl of Radnor, Longford
Barberini,
Casile.
79.
Lucas van Leyden, The Chess Game, Staatliche Museen,
Berlin-Dahlem.
80.
Lucas van Leyden, Moses
Arts, Boston.
Striking the Rock.
Museum
of Fine
8i.
Tomb
of the cardinals of Aniboise, Calhedral. Rouen.
[03.
Pieter Bruegel.
M usees
the Rebel .ingels.
Heaven 'Fall of
It'or in
Royaux dcs Beaux- Arts,
Brussels,
Caihi-dral. Eichstatt.
83.
Lev Hering.
83.
Conrad Meit. family lombs
St. Willibald.
104.
in St. Nicolas
Brou: Margaret of Austria: her husband,
his mother, Margaret of Bourbon.
de Tolentin,
Savoy:
Pieter Bruegel, Dullt Griel,
Musce Mayer \ an den Birah.
.Antwerp.
Philibcrt of
105.
Pieter Bruegel, Suicide of King Saul.
KunMni-ton-cm-s
.Museum, Vienna.
Marinus van Rovmerswaelc,
84.
.9/.
Jerome
in
His Study.
The
Prado. Madrid.
106.
Pieter Bruegel, Christ Carrying the Cross, Kunsihistorische.s
Museum, Vienna.
Jan van Score!. Hilgnms to Jerusalem, Frans Hals Museum,
Haarlem; three similar sets in Centraal Museum, Utrecht.
85.
107.
Pieter Bruegel. .Adoration of the .Magi. National Gallery,
London.
86.
Jan van
The Schoolboy. Boymans-van Bcuningcn
Scorel,
Museum, Rotterdam.
108.
Com
Pieter Bruegel,
Harvesters,
Metropolitan
Museum
of
.An, New' York.
87.
Sketchbook.
Martin van Heemskerck.
BerHn-Dahlem.
Kupfersiich109.
kabinett,
Pieter
Museum,
88.
Philibert dc I'Orme, Le premier tome de
l' architecture.
Bruegel.
Return
the
of
Herd.
Kunsthisiorisches
X'ienna.
Paris,
no.
'567.
Pieter Bruegel, .Adoration nf thf Ma^i. O^kar Ri-inhart
Collection, Winterthur.
89.
Primaticcio and
The Louvre,
Germain
Pilon.
tomb
of Henry
Us heart.
111.
Paris.
Pieter
Royaux
90.
Germain
Pilon, Chancellor Rene de Birague,
Bruegel,
The Numbering
at
Brlhlthtm.
.\lusees
des Beaux-Arts, Brussels,
The Louvre,
112.
Paris.
Pieter Bruegel, Peasant Wedding Dance. Institute of
.Arts,
Detroit.
91.
.Mberlin Tretsch,
92.
Pietro Torrigiani.
Old
Palace, Stuttgart.
113.
tomb of Henry VTI, Chapel
of
Henry
Pieter
Bruegel.
Cloud Cuckoo
Land,
.Alte
Pinakoihck.
-Munich.
\TI, Westminster .Abbey, London.
14.
1
Hampton Court Palace. Middlesex near London Henry
VIII added the chapel and great hall to the cardinals residence.
Major additions in seventeenth century by Sir Christopher
Wren.
93.
Pieter Bruegel, Crippled Lepers.
The Louvre,
Paris.
:
115.
iorisches
116.
94.
Nonesuch, Surrey (demolished c.1670'.
95.
Raphael, Joanna of.iragon. The Louvre,
96.
Francois Clouet. Portrait 0/
Pieter Bruegel.
Museum,
Peasant and the Bird's .\esl.
Kunsthis-
V^ienna.
Pieter Bruegel,
The Misanthrope, Museo Nazionale di
Capodimonte, Naples.
Paris.
1
1
7.
Bartolome Bermejo,
Museum,
the Botanist Pierre Quthe.
Christ's Descent into
Limbo. Diocesan
Barcelona.
The
Louvre, Paris.
118.
Sebastian de .Almonacid. tombs of .Alvaro dc Luna and
Juana Pimentel. Santiago Chapel, Cathedral, Toledo,
his wife
97.
Francois Clouet. Francis
98.
Nicholas Billiard, The
I.
The Louxre.
Paris.
1
.Art
of Limning, written c.1600
not
19.
.Alonso Berruguete, .Altar of S. Benito.
Museo Nacional
de Esculiura, Valladolid.
published until 19121.
99.
Pieter Bruegel, Chriit Appearing
Tiberias, private collection.
New
to the
Apostles at the Sea of
120.
Juan de Valmaseda,
altar,
Cathedral, Palcncia,
121.
too.
Calvary
Crucifixion group
,
high
York.
Pedro Machuca, .Madonna. The Prado, Madrid.
Pieter Bruegel. Battle between Carnival and Lent, Kunst-
historisches
Museum, Vienna.
1
22.
El Greco, Giulio Clovio,
Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte,
Naples.
loi.
Pieter
Bruegel,
Flemish
Proverbs,
Staatliche
Museen,
Berlin-Dahlem.
102.
Pieter Bruegel, Triumph 0/ Death.
The Prado, Madrid.
123.
El Greco, Stripping of Christ. Sacristy, Cathedral, Toledo,
124.
El Greco, Vieu: of Toledo.
Museo
del Greco, Toledo.
421
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Oppc. Adolf.
938
1909
Panofsky, Erwin,
"The Early
Two C> cUs
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in
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35
1
963
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Fischel, Oskar, Raphael. 2 vols.. London, 1948
York, 1956
Gilbert, Creighton, Paintings by Raphael. New
5
6
8
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York,
His Life and
197'
S.
6
New
B., Raphael.
Dusslcr, Luitpold, Raphael, a Critical Catalogue.
4
Burial Chapel of Filippo Stro/.zi in
3
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.Ml the Paintings of Raphael. 2 vols..
J. A.,
7
10
Raphael.
2nd
cd..
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York, 1945
London. 1970
(originally
Circle
Pouncey, Philip, and Gere. John .\.. Raphael and His
Drawings in the British Museum Lon-
2 vols, (in series Italian
.
don, 1962
PAINTING IN MILAN AFTER LEONARDO
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Memorial Museum. Oberlin. Vol. 21. 1963, 150-168
Cum. R. H. Hobart,
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2
3
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8, 1945, 16-22
ANDREA SANSOVINO; ERA BARTOLOMMEO
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of
Suida, Wilhelm, "Andrea Solario in the Light
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.illen
1
.irt
Newly
Quarterly.
1
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'935
See also Part 11 List. 4
Frccdberg
429
ANDREA DEL SARTO
g.
Frecdberg, Sydney
1
J.,
vols.,
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Shearman, John,
2
THE
10.
Sterling. Charles, Still Life Painting,
3
Andrea del Sarlo. 2
4
Walker, John,
Bellini
5
Wind. Edgar,
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Wind, Edgar, "Maccabean, Histories
Ciardi Dupre. Maria G., Small Renaissance Bronzes. London.
above lespecially 9 Tolnay,
\'ol. 2,
f
Tietze, Hans, and Tictze-Conrat, Erica. "Giulio Cam5
pagnola's Engravings," Print Collectors Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1942.
Badt, Kurt. "Raphaels Incendio del Borgo," Journal of the
Warburg and Courlauld Institutes, Vol. 22, 1959, 35-59
179-207
General List, 43 Tietze
Pope-Hennessy (Riccio
D'Ancona, Paolo, The Famesina Frescoes at Rome, Milan, 1955
Gombrich, Ernst H., "Raphael's Madonna della Sedia"
Hartt,
.Metropolitan
Saxl, Fritz, "Pagan Sacrifice in the Italian Renaissance,"
4
Journal of the Warburg Institute, \'o\. 2, 1938-39. 346-367 Riccio)
1
4
London, 1948 (Vol.
3
Raphael's last years
(General
Italian Engraving.
189-506, Campagnola)
Mayor, A. Hyatt, "Giulio Campagnola,"
Museum of .Art Bulletin, Vol. 32, 1937, 192-196
The
Sistine Ceiling)
2
Hind, Arthur M., Early
2
5,
See also Section 6 List
3
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970
in the Sistine Ceiling,"
Jacob, London, i960, 312-
327
.
York, 1959
Gods. Cambridge, Mass.,
GIULIO campagnola; riccio
15.
in Italian Renaissance Studies, cd. E.
1 1
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at Ferrara,
the
SISTINE CEILING
1
I
of
1948
Oxford. 1965
.-Inrfrca f(ur«
2
Suida Manning. Bertina. "The Nocturnes of Luca
Suneys of the Age
Renaissance in .Xorthem Europe,
Blomfield, Reginald, Mi/or)' o/frfnrA
Olsen. Harald. Federico Barocci. Copenhagen. 1962
Cam-
biaso." Arl Quarterly, Vol. 15, 1952. 197-220
1968, 241-249
.irchiteclure in
1
to
tyoo,
ii^g^-iSSi,
as a
Whole and
Studies of
Wide Scope
4 Chatelet, Albert, and Thuillier. Jacques. French Painting
from Fouquel to Poussin, Geneva, 1963
5
Coremans, Paul
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Civilization, Detroit,
6
Cuttler, Charles D., .Northern Painting from Pucelle
New
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(ed.), Flanders in the Fifteenth Century: Art
i960
to
Bruegel,
Delevoy, Robert. Flemish Painting. II: From Bosch
7
Geneva. 1958
8
Dupont. Jacques, and Gnudi.
Rubens.
lo
Ce.sare. Gothic Painting.
Gene-
Max.
Friedlander,
Early .\etherlanduh
From Van Eyck
paperback)
10
,
(also
Painting.
vols..
14
1967—
Brussels,
11
,
to
Bruegel.
2nd
ed.,
London, 1965
Landscape, Portrait.
O.Nford,
Still Life.
13
An
,
Introduction to the History
,
many
t
-Amsterdam, 1949
German Engravings. Etchings, and Woodcuts,
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2
.
18
Bold," Apollo, Vol. 76, 1962, 271-276
.
ijOO
.
York, 1936
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20
1
1
Painters, trans.
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Germany
also
vols.,
Cam-
paperback)
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11,
1948, 1-34
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\'ol, 9,
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See also Section 3 List above,
i
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List,
6 Cuttler.
22 Panofsky, 26 Ring
Parker, Karl T., Drawings of the Early German Schools, Lon-
23
don, 1926
Porcher, Jean, French Illumination, London, 1959
Puy\elde, Leo van. The Flemish Primitives, Brussels, 1948
Ring, Grete, A Century of French Painting 1 400- t^oo, London,
24
25
26
2
London, 1950
Stechow, Wolfgang, .Xorthem Renaissance Art, 1400-1600
series
1966 (also paperback)
the .Netherlands
ijoo
arul Sculpture
1600. Baltimore, 1969
to
PR.\GUE .AND
8.
1
\'on der Osten, Gert, and ^'ey, Horst, Painting
Germany and
Deuchler,
.Metropolitan
ume
Florens,
'*Jean
.Uuseum of .Art
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2
Facts and
3
Morand, Kathleen, Jean
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Nordenfalk,
.ipollo.
Fictions,"
Matcjcek,
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London, 1959
Philip, Lottc Brand,
and
Pesina, Jaroslav.
Czech
Gothic
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The Ghent
.iltarpiece
and
the .4rt
of
Jan
van Eyck, Princeton, 1971
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below
"Maitre Honore and Maitre Pucelle,"
JAN VAN eyck: THE OTHER WORKS
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Porcher, Jean, .Medieval French Miniatures. .New York, i960
Rorimer, James, The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux.
New
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1957
.See
Antonin,
13^0-14^0. Prague, 1950
Part III List, 6 Cuttler. 27 Stange
JAN VAN eyck: THE GHENT ALTARPIECE
9.
1
I
FOLLOWING
Painting.
1
Millar, Eric, The Parisian .Miniaturist Honore,
2.
ITS
Vol. 29, 1971, 253-256 (vol-
contains related articles by others)
2
6
de Berry.
Friedl, .Antonin, .Magister Theodoricus. Prague, 1956
See also
5
Time of Jean
JEAX PUCELLE
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1
in the
The Boucicaut Master. London, 1968
II.
Porcher, Jean, The Rohan Book of Hours, London, 1959
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2g
Meiss, Millard, French Painting
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Stange. Alfred, German Painting of the XVtk-XVIth Centuries,
28
THE BOL'CICAUT HOURS AND THE ROHAN HOURS:
7.
SOME CONCLUSIONS
1
'949
27
in
Marcel. "Beauneveu," Encyclopedia of World Art,
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Bober, Harry,
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in the .Netherlands, Fratue.
Panofsky, Erwin. Early .\etherlandish Painting. 2
bridge, Mass., 1953
6 Cuttler, 22 Panofsky, 26 Ring
"The Zodiacal Miniature of the Tres Riches
Heuresofthe Dukcof Berry," j'oiirna/q/"/A^ Warburg and Courtauld
3
22
.Aubert,
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2
ijOO, Baltimore, 1965
to
List.
BROTHERS
15-128
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2
HI
THE DUKE OF BERRY AND THE LI.MBOURG
6.
College
originally 1604,
teenth Century to Post-Impressionism,
and Spain 1400
Muller
BROEDERLAM AND BELLECHOSE
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1
New
List, 21
1800, Baltimore, 1959
to
Mander, Carel van, Dutch and Flemish
19
HI
many
5.
Art Journal, Vol. 17, 1958,
de Wall,
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.\rl.
>'3-"9
Zarnerki, George, "Glaus Slutcr: Sculptor to Philip the
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.irchitecture in
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I,
.New-
CLAUS SLUTER
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V of France.
vols.,
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Spain and Portugal
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Duke,
the
6 Cuttler, 22 Panofsky, 24 Porcher
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of Woodcut, 2
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\,
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1
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.ACCOMPLISHMENTS .\ROLND KING CHARLES V
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2
Ludwig von, Jan
Conway, William, The Van
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.411 the
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Weale, William, Hubert and Jan van
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1
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THE MASTER OF FLEMALLE
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JEAN FOUqUET
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List, 21,1
Ej'ck,
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16,
1957,
AVIGNON
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RENE
.AND KING
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2
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i
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THE FLEMALLE STYLE
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ELSEWHERE
Geisberg,
1
Vol.
9,
IN
".Mary
THE GROWING ROLE OF SCULPTURE:
SeePan
1922, 203-235
Shestack, .'Man fed.). Master E.
III List. 21
Muller
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S..
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Frankl, Paul,
I
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Berkeley,
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Fedcr, Theodore,
".'\
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Ann
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,
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i
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"Riemenschneider's
St.
Jerome and His Other
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Muller
6 Guttler, 9 Friedlander, 22 Panofsky
NUREMBERG AND
ITS
SCULPTORS
DIRK BOUTS
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JOGS VAN gent; HUGO VAN DER GOES
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Pan
1968,
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DURER
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14,
6 Guttler, 9 Friedlander, 22 Panofsky
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"Vischer," Encyclopedia of World Art, Vol.
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.blaster
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\'6\. 12, 1966, 215-218
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1
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Print
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.S>f
Schongauer,"
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THE WOOD SCULPTORS
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I," Art Bulletin, Vol. 42, i960,
.SVf
THE WAKE
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3
3
1
"Martin
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the First Fifty Years of
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1
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i
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,
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I
HOLBEIN
Friedlander
Evans, Joan, English
,4rt
ITALI.\N.\TE
ARCHITECTURE
130^-1.161, Oxford, 1949
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Vey
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.
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THE HEGE.MONY OF .\STWERP
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04,
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2
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\ey
'947
2
1
I
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.-K..
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4
Cleef,"
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:
as a Painter of
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1
I
"Quentin Massys
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.Metropoli-
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.
.Mabuse)
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Christ
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3
1929, 1-12
2,
i
Kings
Max, Jan
196-203
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See also Part III List,
"New Obser\ations on Joos van
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ike
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ANTWERP AND THE HIGH RENAISSANCE
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.X'ithart
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1
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GRUNEWALD
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->
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21 Miiller (Solesmes), 26 Ring (Marmion)
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Innocents," Art Bulletin, Vol. 50, 1968, 270-277
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IN
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PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IX SPAIN BEFORE
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,
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Rome,"
73-50
at Toledo,
i^y6-86.
New
York,
958
5
Baltimore, 1947
.irt.
Vol. 46, 1953. 15-23 [originally 1924
2
4
York, 1966
6
Influences
York, 1953
London,
1
5
vols.,
EL GRECO
46.
.\uerbach, Erna. .\icholas Milliard, London, 1961
1904
4
London, 1938
I, Geneva. 1952
Post, Chandler R., History of Spanish Painting. 12
5
Cambridge, Mass., 1930-58
Santos, Reynaldo dos, JVuno Gonfalves, London, 1953
6
See also Part III List, j6
3
Von de
THE PORTRAIT PHENOMENON
42.
1
Delevov, 19 Mander, 29
4
in
'952
2
7
London, 1964
Mediterranean. Oxford. 1948
2
Benesch,
Baecksbacka, Ingjald, Luis de Morales, Helsinki, 1962
Gomez-Moreno, Manuel, The Golden Age of Spanish Sculpture,
1
2
THE LOW COUNTRIES,
GERMANY, AND ENGLAND
1
i
EL GRECO
New
ARCHITECTURE
41.
THE MOVE FROM ANTWERP TO HAARLEM
44.
Collectors Quarterb.
Zerner, Henri, The School of Fontainebleau. Etchings and En-
5
The Drawings. Ne
the Elder.
York, 1061
Osten and Vev
958. ii3-'90
Popham. Arthur E.. "Jean Duvet." Print
4
Vol. 8, 1921, 122-150
gravings,
Mijnz, Ludwig, Pieter Bruegel
2
Blunt, Anthony, PhilihnI de I'Orme. London, 1958
Miller, Naomi, "The Form and Meaning of the Fontaine des
1
Waterhouse,
Ellis,
"El Greco's Italian Period,"
.\rt Studies.
Vol. 8, 1930, 59-88
I
6
BRUEGEL
43.
Wethey, Harold, El Greco and His
School. 2 vols.. Princeton,
1962
Gro.ssmann, Fritz. Bruegel.
1966
436
the Paintings.
2nd
ed.,
London,
7
VVittkower, Rudolf "El Greco's
.irt
News, Vol. 56, 1957. 44-49
Language of Gestures."
C
H R( )N( )L( )C;iC A L C H A RT OF
RIAAISSANCK ARTISIS AND AR( HITK.CTS
.N.
OLD
.OUl
OU
Index
(DiinT).
Ailani hirlandaio),
120; Fig. 151
April iTrhs Riches Heures of ihc Duke of
Berrv) (l.imbourg Brothers), 277, 302;
(colorplale 42) 282
Bartnlommeo, tomb
Andrea
AndiiM
I'isano
-cOrcagna
(Andrea
Pontedera). 40;
41: Fig. 35; Florence:
40-41. si; C.illiedr;il
Alt 0/ Sraiiianshili.
Bapiisierv d
s,
tla
Icmci. 41
Bell
Andiunn
I
1
.Arcimboldo, 410
Padua
.Are/zo; S, F"rancesco. frescoes:(Piero della
Francesca). 100-
Clone.
io. 24. 39-40. 49; compared
to:
Fig.
t:
Fig. 123
Arion (Riccio). 186; Fig. 233
Giotto. 31: Ciiovanni Pisano. 37; Death
oj thr Virgin
193
Anel.Chaleaiiof:g;Me(del()rmel.395:
ot
(Michelo//o), 94; Fig. 112
Architectural Fantasy (Bram;intel. 152; Fig
183
.Arena Chapel,.^ff
210
Xeiroidiio, w, \eirocchio.
/«'n/(i
people. 275-76; AnnuHCinlion and
PmruUititiit and Flight into Egypt.
Campo
Santf), see Pisa
C^thednil
Bromver. .\driaen. 376
Brucgel. Pieter. 385. 391. 405-8; .Iduration
0/ thr Map. 407: Battle beturrn Canlhal
and Lent, 406: Blind Ij-ading llir HIiild. 408:
Bosch
anelaisian. 405; Return of thr
Herd, 407; scale. 407; Suicidr of King Saul.
henng
40T:Tourrn/ BabrI, 407:
Death. 406
Fig. 512;
Triumph
,1/
Bruges. 308. 363. 366. 369. 373
dome, 64. 70-71; Fig.
of the IniuKents (Foundling
Hospital). 71; Fig. 78; .S. Croce, Pazzi
leiy. 70; Ciiihedral.
77; Hospital
Lorenzo: 71.
Figs. 82. 83: S.
203: Fig. 80; Old Sacrist) 71 79; Fig. 79; S.
Spirito. 73; Fig. 81: Luca della Robbia
.
53
.
and. 80; perspective, 64; ratios, architectural, 70; Romanesque, 70,71;
Sam/ice of Isaac. 52, 62: Fig. 54
Bruni, Leonardo, tomb ol (Rosscllino, B.).
compared
260:
C^aravaggio,
to Giollo, 31
Polidoro
da.
Bniyn, Bartcl, 373, 402: Johnnn ion
.\iayor of Cologne. 402; Fig. 504
Biillant. 397. 400
Caravaggio
Card Players (Niccolo
dell Abbale). 191: Fig.
240
Caroto. 244
Carpaccio, \*ittore. 130. 241: Leavetaking of
St. Ursula and the Pniice. 130: Fig. 167:
5/. Augustine in His Sliid^. 130, 182; (colorplate 23) 133
Carracci, 254, 410
Carrello, llaria del,
tomb of (Jacopo tiella
Querela), 60; Fig. 62
Castagno. .Andrea del. 89-90. 93. 94; Last
Supper, 90; (colorplaie 17) 1(15: muscularity of figures. 100,
13; A'inc Famous .Men
1
and iVomen, 89-90,
della Francescaand,
Buonarroti. Michelangelo, ire .Michelangelo
Buoulalciili. Bernarch., 258
Burgkmair. Hans. 355. 383; \Vn.iskuiiigt'isils
an .irtisl. 355; Fig. 445
Burgundv. dukes ol. ^er Philip die Bold;
406
.Man of Sorrous (Multscher), 325;
lifm,
(Bosch ). 369; Fig. 459
(Pontormol.208: Fig. 260:
too:
182
Castiglioiie d'Olona: Baplisierv; fresco
(Masolino). 59: Fig. 61
Catherine of .Aragon. 366
Cjttanco, Danese, 246
Fig. 19
Benvenulo, 216, 251; A iilabwgiaphy,
compared
10 Danti, 251; Diana, 216;
Fig. 270: Perseus, 216; Fig. 271
see Pavia
Certosa del Galluzzo,
208; Fig. 260
Certosa,
frc-sco
(Ponlormo),
C^cz.;mne, 101
Chalons, Count Rene de, tomb of (Richierl,
397: Fig. 495
C:harles IV of
,
382: Fig.
Bohemia, Holv Roman
Fmperor. 285
Charles
\'.
Holv
227. 254.
\', King of France, 268, 270-71, 276:
t(mib of (Beauneveu), 270
I'. King, and Qiiern Jrannr. 270. 274;
Charles
f'K 336
Led
to Cali'ary
(Pordemme),
195: Fig.
246
Christ Pantocralor, thr Virgin, .ingrlt.and .-ipastles.
15. 18;
(colorplaie
Chnst Rescuing
P'g 43
Chn.st Shiran
1)33
the Disciples
to the
(Orcagna). 46;
Proplr (Lucas van I.ev den ).
375; Fig. 467
ChnstTiihlngLravr of His Mother {\jiMi,).l. 94
Clemcni VII. 203, 247
Cloud Ciickuo iMiid (Bruegel). 408
Clouet, Francois, 397, 404
Clouei, Jean, 370-71, 402
Cock, Jan de, 374
Cock, Jerome, 374, 398, 405. 409
Coduccl, Mauro, 131, 132. 129; Palazzo
Vendramin-Calergi,
Roman Fmperor,
256, 388, 393
Charles
122, 167; (colorplaie 21) 133
Christ
Baptist
26-27: Fig. 19; compared 10: Cimabue,
27; Ciotlo. 30-31; tjLsl judgment. 26~2T,
216;
di
Enthroned among Saints (Orcagna). 46,
Fig-
gione), 180-82; Fig. 226
(Nardo
(Titian), 229:
47, 74: (colorplaie 7) 55: Fig. 43
Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter (Perugino),
Christ's
C:asliglioiie,BaIdassare, 16, \%2:Thr Courtier,
Jans). 315;
uith Thorns
(colorplaie 37) 2.S7
space com radic-
dihedral: allarpiece (Cior-
Sim
tot
Crowned
Christ's
90
C:astellranco:
Cellini.
(Geengen
106; Piero
114; Fig.
472; siaircasc, 328; Fig. 471
Reidl.
the
404
Clone). 46: Fig. 44
Chri.st
Polidoro da
see
Chamhord, Chateau of (Cortonal
95; Fig. 114
Brussels. 308
Fig.
Christ
Figs. 290. 291
Ciivallini, Pielro, 26-27, 28, 49; Apostles.
Biurullcschi. Filipp(/«/orf/'i/n(»-.
see
Can Grande
;
to the .ipmtlrs at the
Campin, Robert,
275. 277. 296. 331: (colorplaie 41) 281:
conieci). 276; comparcti will): Linibourg
Brothers. 277: Shiier. 275
.ippeanng
Campaiia, Pedro de, 414
i'i\itation:
Bronzino. Agnolo. 221. 258. 405: Barioloinmeo. Fra. and. 22 1 Elronora of Tolrda and
Hri Son, 221; Fig. 272: Holbein and. 362;
Parmigianino and. 221: portraits. 221.
390. 402: I'enui Disarming Cupid. 221:
1
160: Fig. 141
C:hrist
Christ Bearing the Cross
f'R- 232
Paul. 410
Broederlam. Melchior. 275-76:
Charles VI of France, 278
VH of France. 317
King (Fouquel), 318; Fig. 392
Charles VIII of France, 381
Chartres Cathedral, 15, 272
C:haucer, 278
Chevalier, £iienne.Hoursol (Fouquel). 318
Chiesa Collegiata,n,
and
Fig. 123
Death of Ananias (Raphael). 373
Death of Cleopatra (Romanino), 201; Fig. 248
Death of Proms (Piero di Cosimo). 150
Tower,
ler\, 80; Fig. 95;
Fig. 71;
David and SauHLucassan Levden).376;
79-80; surface
core, contrast between, 62, 79; Tin-
toretto and, 242
Doria. .Andrea. 215
Dosio, C;iovan Antonio. 258
Dossi. B.iltista, 191
Dossi. Dosso, igo-igi: Allegory of .Music. 191:
Bacchanal.
190; Joz'e Painting Butter/lies
191; .Melissa. 191; Fig.
239
Cuspinian (Cr.inach). 348: Fig. 436
:illcesca).
Dieam a/ Cwstauline I'uTo ni|>aitl Morgante on a
I oledo and
Herreia). 394: Fig.
t
488; C:ouii ol Kings iind C;hurch laiade.
,394; Fig. 489; l.ibrarv (Tibaldi). 257
Esiorial:
Etchings. 351
Tortnise
(C;ioh|. 253;
Fig. 416;
(Rizzo). 131: Fig. 169
ExpuLsionfrom Paradise: (Jacopo della
Quer-
ela). 61. 167; Fig. 55; (Masacci<>).74; Fig. 87
Expulsion of Heliodorus (Raphael), 174
Eyck. Hubert van. 289; Annuncialion. 289;
Ghent altarpiece, 289; (colorplate 44)
284: Fig. 357
44:
Baptistery: dtHirs. 51-52. 62;
EJfigy (Bruni
lure(Danii). 251: Fig. 314: (Rustici). 157.
293. 294. 295: Joos van Cent. 313: Ghent
altarpiece. 289; (colorplate 44) 284: Fig.
160: Fig. 56: (.Sansovino. .\.). 164; Fig. 208;
Boboli (iaiilcns: Miilpiiiie (Ciolrl. 253:
Fig. 318:
and His Wife, 290.
359; .Madonna in a Church, 290;
mass and light, synthesis ol. 289;
C:alhedral (Duomo), 70: Fig. 75;
(Brunelleschi), 64. 70-71; Fig. 77;
(Giotto). 32; laiade (.Ariiolfo di Cambiu).
mirrors. 318; oil medium. 293; Portrait of
His Wife, igi: Fig. 362; portraits. 290-93.
ccllo).77. 90; Fig. 9o:(\'asari).222; sculp-
357; (iiovanni .erii). 52; Figs. 56.57;stulp-
Fallofjencho Fon(|Uct: ]olhi(. 92. 102; Medici downfall.
dukedom.
159;
(Riemenschneider), 332;
/.ri-
Eyck. Jan
Diner. 184. 342-46. 356.383; .W«"i and Eve.
343. 383; .Apotalypsc series. 342-43; Fig.
\einesis,
Erharl. Michael. 332
:
Michele: (Donatello), 62, 79;
(Ghibcrti), 62; Fig. 68; (Luca della
Robbia), 81; (colorplate 16) 88: (Orcagna).
47: (Verrocchio), 114: Fig. 141;
Palazzo: Medici: (Michclozzo), 97; Fig.
118: frescoes:
(Benoz/o). 93; Fig. no;
(V'asari). 221; Pitti: 97;
(.Ammanali). 233;
Fig. 287; Rucellai: (Alberii). 84. 97: Fig.
102: Strozzit Benedetto da Maiano and II
Cronaca). 122. 129. 180; Fig. 165; (Niccolo
Grosso). 122;
SS. .Annunziaia: (Michelozzo). 97-98.
393: F'g 119; fresco (.Andrea del Sario).
166; Fig. 210; (Baldovineiti). 93; Fig. 111:
S.
Apollonia: fresco (Castagno). 90;
(colorplaie 17) 105:
Croce. 70, 82; Fig. 74; frescoes (Orcagna). 47; Fig. 46: painting (Cimabue).
26: Fig. 18; Bardi Chapel: 25; frescoes
(Giotto). 31: Fig. 26; Bardi di Vernio
S.
Chapel: fresciR-s (Maso). 37. 272; (colorplate 4) 36; Baroncclli Chapel: fresco
(Gaddi). 37. 268; Fig. 28; Pazzi Chapel:
(Brunellesihi). 73; Figs. 82. 83: Rinuccini
Chapel: tresco (Giovanni da Milaiin). 47;
(colorplate 8) 36;
.
il8.
156.
208. 251. 258. 260. 308: art hismrv. 29.
82-83; banking. 28; Bvzantine painting.
S.
Felicita:
painting
(Pontormo).
208-9. 221: (colorplate 34) 218;
S.Lorenzo: (Brunelleschi 71. 203: Fig.
1.
449
8o; pulpils {DonatelUi). 82; stulpiure
Freising. Cathedral: sculpture
(Dcsiderio da Scltignano), 95-96; Fii;
115: l.ibrarv; (Michelangelo). 212-13:
Fig. 266: Medici Clhapel: (Michelangeli)).
Fries.
203. 212; Fig. 252; loinbs: (Michelangelo).
Froment. Nicolas. 321: I'ngrn
203-5. 402;
252-54: Old Sacrisn:
Figs.
(Biuncllesihi). 71. 79, 203: Fig. 79: lonih
(Vcrnxihio). 114: Fig. 140;
.San Marco: painting (.\ngeIico.
Fiii).
76. 80: (coluiplaie 13) 85; S. Maigheril:i
a Montici: painting(Masterof St. Cecilia).
(
Kasi hai
S.
Maria Novella.
Cloister: fresco
f;hapel: fresco
(Andrea da Firenze),
47,
74: Fig. 45: Stroz/i C^hapel: frescoes
Froissart. 270
m
the
Hur
Bmh. 321; Fig. 396
Frucaul. Rueland the Elder. 328
Frucaul. Rueland the Younger. 348
Fuggcr faniilv, chapel ol. 382-83
Fuiihoi. Hinrik. 328
Riccio, 186; .Sebastiano del
Gaddi. Faddeo.
Gaillon.
Taddeo
29-31. 32. 37, 41, 51; compared
wiih: .Altichiero. 50; .Arnolfo di Cambio.
Ciaddi
31;
ol. 381
Gurden of Paradise (Frankfurt, Master of
189: Ferrara: Pala/zo del
Seniinario: fresco: 189: Fig. 236
Gathering of the Manna (Bouts). 308: (loloi-
128:
Fig.
162:
fresco
(Poii-
tormo). 208: Fig. 259
Floris. Cornells. 398. 399. 409: -Aniwerp: CilN
Hall, fafadc. 398: Fig. 497
Floris. Frans.
389-90.409: conipaietl with:
Coecke. 390: Lombard, 390: coitiposilion.
389-90: Full 11/ the Rebel Angels. 389: Fig.
482
Flotncr, Peler. 383. 385; .Apollo FoiiiilaMi.
Fig-
473
Fontaincblean. 397. 398. 400: hcsco
216
Fonle
C.M.i
1
|.nopntl(ll.i (Juercia), 60: Figs,
63. 64
52: Fig. 23: Kiss of Julius, 30; (colorplale
plaie 47) 31
Gattamelata (Donatello). 81. 115: Fig. 97
Gaudenzio Ferrari. 151. 156
Geertgen tot Sint Jans. 315-16. 373. 387.
and Child Enthroned with Angels. 30—31:
Fig. 25; materialism, 30: Miraculous
Appearance of .St. Francis to the Monks of
Aries. 31: Fig. 26: Padua: Arena Chapel:
Scrovegni frescoes, 29-30, 31, 51: (colorplate 3) 35: Figs, 23, 24: plaque to, 118;
402: Burning uf the Bones oj John the Baptist.
3 5; Fig. 387 Christ Carrying the Cross. 3 5:
;
129.
.SV.
151.
196.
224;
Jeiume. 129. 150; Fig
166
Fig. 491
Foiuiuet. Jean. 317—19: drawings, portiait.
318: Fall of Jericho (Josephus* Antif/uites).
318: (colorplate49) .^37: Hours of ttiennc
Chevalier. 318: KingChiirlei I'll, 318: Fig.
392: Mmlunno 0/ Elirnne Chevalier. 318:
Fig. 393: perspective. 318-19: Piela. 318:
317-18
Four Apo-lle, (Durer). 346: Fig. 433
Four Horsemen (.Apocalvpse series) (Duiev).
I.
Tour, 315:
\atii>it\.
Vaga). 215: Fig. 269;
S.
Maria Assunia
Carignano: (Alessi). 256. 394: Fig. 323
(icntile da Fabriano. 58-59. 74. 104: Adoration uf the Magi. 58; (colorpl.ilc 10) I'lli;
modeling. 104; Presentation in the rrmjile.
di
C.eoigGLs'^e (Holbein). 362
Gerhaert, Nicolaus, 326-27, 331: conioui
line, 326; Crucifix. 326; Self-portrait.
Duke. Study
di Giorgio.
of.
326;
Fig.4o6;Stossand.335: Vienna: Emperor
ck III tomb. 327; Fig. 407
Ro
(;i-
258
126-27. '53. i79:(^or-
tona:S. Maria del Calcinaio. 127. 128. 156:
Fig. 161: forts. 126-27. 153: propoiiions.
461
Francke. Master. 299: Boucicaul M.islcr
and. 299: Si. liarharu Betrayed. 299: Fig.
371
Francois of Briltanv and Marguerite of Foix
tomb ((>olombe). 364: Fig. 454
rranklurir;rtrf/«M)//'nrar//M'. Master oi the:
Fiideiuk IM.tombol ((;erhaerl).327:
407
450
(af>vaiini
Bologna,
(iiovanni
hrn
Mart/red. 189
Francis I. 209. 224. 370. 371. 394
Frmici.'. I. King (Joos van Cknc). 370. Fig,
Francia. Francesco.
3) .35: Lamentation. 30; Fig. 24;
290. 368; Fig. 359
(.enoa: Palazzo Cambiaso: (.Alessi). 256: Fig,
322: Palazzo Doria: fresco (Pertno del
Figs. 56, ST. John the Baptist, 62: Sacrifice
uf Isaac. 51-52. 60: Fig. 55: St. Multheii:
342; Fig. 427
Francesco
Francesco
la
315; Fig. 388
Foundry (Morandini). 258: Fig. 326
Fountain of the Innocents: (Goujon). 395;
realism, portrait.
1
1
compared with de
59: Fig. 60
Foppa. \inLen/.o.
Crucijixiim. 129:
the). 299: Fig. 372
Caravaggio. 31: Cavallini. 30-31:
Ciniabue. 29, 30; Giovanni Pisano. 30:
.Maso, 37; Picasso, 31: Vitalc da Bologna,
49: Florence: S. Croce: Bardi Chapel. 31:
Fig. 26: Joachim and the Shepherds, 29-30.
(iarofalo.
ajiil
stucco (Primatitcio). 224. 394: Fig. 276:
(Rosso). 209. 215. 394: sculpture (Cellini).
.
see
Chateau
(•loiiii. 27,
Fig. 81: S. TrinilA: Sasselti Ch.ipcl:
frescoes (Ghirlandaio). 120: Fig. 151:
.Sangallo).
187:
Madonna
193- 350. 418; (colorplate 29) 197: Three
Phdusnphers. 182; Fig. 227: Titian and, 192
(;addi. .Agnolo. 51
46. 47. 74: (colorplate 7) 55: Fig. 43: .San
Miniato. 70: S. Spirito (Brunellesclii). 73:
ila
Piombo,
and St. Francis, 180-82;
Fig. 226: Impressionism and. 182: nude,
reclining, as theme. 182. 226; people and
environment. 180-82; Tempest, 180. 182.
u'ith St. Liherali.s
Galatea (Raphael). 174-75; Fig. 216
Garden oj F.urlhh Delights (Bosch). 369
Poggio a Claiano (CJiuliano
Gior-
187:
copies ol works. 185: Enthrimed
(Nardodi Clone). 46: painting (Orcagna).
Villa at
di
Barbari and.
184; compared with Bellini. Giovanni, 180,
182-83; Cinia, 182: Palma, Jacopo, 187:
70: fresco (Masaccio).
Green
Fig. 86:
(L'cccllo). 77: (colorplate 14) 86: .Spanish
Francesco
di. see
gio
(liorgione. 109. 180-82.
27. 49: Fig. 22:
74. 291:
Francesco
(liorgio.
297-98; Fig. 368
Hans. 348
213, 254:
224;
ratlon. 213: Fig. 2 18
CJiuntii Pisano. 20. 25. 26: Cross,
20: Fig. 5
Giuslo de' Menabuoi, 50
(iloucesler Cathedral. 70, 381
(.ollzius.
Hendrick.410-1
i";.S7nm/niy/
Brain,
411; Fig. 517
(lonialves. Nuno. 411; Henry the Navigator,
411; St. Vincent I'eneiated by the Royal Family,
411; Fig, 519
Good Government
in the City (I.oren/elli. A.).
45, 49; (coloipl;ile 6) 54
the Country
Good Governiiient
m
(I.orcnzeHi.
A.). 45. 49; Fig. 42
(;ossaerl.Jan (Mabuse). 369-70. 385: Danae.
369: (colmplaie 57) 377: nudes. 369
Gou,on.Jean.395:">"'P^"<-d"i.hBMii,cclM.
395-
VympA (Founiain
nl ihc Iniioienls).
395; Fig. 491
Graf.
I'l s,
Bcnozzo
444
Granada: Cathedral: (Siloc). 393; Fig. 487;
Royal Palace: (Machuca). 392 - 93; Fig. 486
Grasser. Erasmus. 327; Morris Dancer. 327:
Fig. 410
(.reco. El (Domenikos Theoiokopoulos).
101. 367. 415- 18; Assumption of the Virgin,
416; Fig. 525; Bunal of the Count of Orgaz.
418; Fig. 526; clav figures, use ol. 416;
lolor. 416; (ompared with Bassano. 246;
form vs. representation. 416; landscapes.
418; Mannerism, 246.418: religious paimUlgs. 416: St. Johns (iiion of the Mytene.
of the Apocalypse.
416:
418: Fig. 527; Stnpping
Views of
Foledo, 418:
(colorplate 60) 380
Grevel. William, house of. 317
Hans Baldung.
Hans
CJrien,
~ee
Baldung Grien,
plates 51, 52)
color, 348;
.3.39,
340; Fig. 434; light and
Mocking
of Christ.
347-48;
346. 348; Fig. 434; Resurrection.
346. 348: (colorplate 52) 340
(iiiarienlo. 50: Three Children
the Fier\ Fur\atn'it\.
m
(.uelphs. 37
Francesco. t6
Guul.iiell
nh (I.ombardo.
186
I.
(luidoda Siena, 25-26
(iuild: Linen Drapers. 76; Wool Finish('ini( i.irdini,
i
Hagenauer.
N'ikolaus, 333; St. .inthony with
Sts. .-iiigustine
and Jerome (Isenheim
altar-
piece). 333. 348: Fig. 417
Frans, 403
H.iinplon Court, 400
Hanilhrniko/a Christian Knight (Erasmus). 345
H.ils,
Hardwick
Hall, icf Derbyshire
Hal iniaiin. Master, 322-24. 334; compared
with Rogier van der Wcyden, 325; St.
.Martin. 324; Fig. 400
Haiisbuch Master, 330-31; Beggars Fighting.
330;
Fig. 413; Planet Venus. 331; Fig. 415:
Sohnnon IVorshiping an
Idol. 331; Fig.
414
H,iv, Jean, 364
Hay l\aln (Bosch), 368-69;
359
(colorplate 55)
Hawku'ood. Sir John (L'ccello), 77, 90; Fig.
90
HralingalthePiiolofBelhe\dal linloietto). 242
Heart and Drure at the Fountain (Coeur
d'Amour tpns). 321-22; Fig. 397
I
licmskeick. Martin van. 388;.Sf
l.iihr
113: Fig. 138
Hercules aiidCacusiBdnd'ineW'i). 205-6; Fig.
Company. 385;
Fig. 478;
90, 113, 119; Fig. 107
Hercules
and Omphale{SpTat\^cr); 410;
Fig.
516
Hering. toy. 383
Herrera, Juan de, 394; Escorial, 394; Fig.
488; Court of Kings and church favadc.
394; Fig. 489
Herri met de Bles. 391
Hesdin. Jacquemart de. see Jacqiiemart
de
Hesdin
404-5
;
.Neufchatel and,
405; Youth Leaning nn a Tree. 405; Fig. 509;
writings, 404
Hiischvogel. .Vuguslin, 355
Holbein, Hans the Elder, 356
Holbein, Hans, 352, 356-62; .-tmba-wadors.
The. 362; Anne of Clei'es. 362; Fig. 450:
Family. 361; (colorplate 54) 358;
.irtlst's
Dance House, 356-61; Fig. 449;
Bronzinoand. 362; cliar;icterizatick.J. van. jiy. Crucifixion. 313
J(n-e Painting Butterflies (Dosso). 191
Juan de Flandcs. 366; David, G., and, 366;
.Magdalene at the Feet ofJesus. 366; Fig.456
Judas Receiving His Bribe (Barna da Siena),
Imitation of Chnst
Impressionism.
Reidt.
the Apostles. 313; Fig. 384;
(Stniet), 409; Fig. 515
in the Snow (Brucgel). 407; (color-
Hunters
303
48-49
Judas Receiving
IHCoeHa).
the Thirty Pieces of Silver
(Diiccio), 39: Fig. 30
Judgment
404; Fig. 508
di
434; (Hagenauer), 333. 348; Fig. 417
iarv
Innocent
Henr\' IV of France. 252
Isenbrani, -Adrien, 366
Isenheim altarpiece: (Grtinewald), 333. 346,
348; (colorplates 51. 52) 339. 340; Fig,
F'g- 23
lndiL\lr\ (\'eronese. P.), 245; Fig.
Elisor, 385
Upper
20
256
Paint-
precursor of
.Assisi), 27; Fig,
of Spain, 365-66
(Nanni di Banco), 62
Hercules ami the Centaur (Giambologna). 25
Hercules and the Hydra (Pollaiuolo. .A. del).
ing the Virgin,y»»: Fig. 481
Heidelberg: Ottheinrichsbau. 399; Fig. 500
llemessen, Jan Sanders \;in, 385, 391; Imosc
Church.
fsaicih
and Antaeus (Pollaiuolo, .A. del),
painting: 90, 113, 119; Fig. 108; sculpture-
Hercules
fig-
Master. 151, 333. 383; Coronation 0/
Virgin. 333; Fig. 418; Dreyer and. 352
I...
342: Fig. 426
Isaac Blessing Jacob (S. Francesco.
Isabella
Holy Family by the fr>un(nm(.'Mtclorfcr). 350;
ers. 51. 62
the
or-
compared
nace, so; Fig. 51
H.
I
362. 400;
Nonesuch, 400
Henry the .Xtwigator (Gon^alves). 41
Hilliard, Nicholas.
C^riincwald, .Vlatthias. 346-48; compared
with Gorreggio. 348; Crucifixion, ^46. 148;
(lolorplale 51) S39: figures, 347-48;
Isenheini allarpiece, 333, 346. 348: (color-
(
400
Henry VIII, King of England.
Gozzc)Ii
355: Soldiers on the Road. 355; Fin.
oj Chnst.
Henry VII. King of England, tomb
rigiani),
Gozz*>li. Benoz/.o. see
Fig
oj
Mankind (Rohan Hours),
279:
350
Judgment of
tomb of (Pollaiuolo,
.\.
del),
113; Fig. 139
Innsbruck mausoleum: sculpture
yiirf///i
Paris. 383
(Botticelli). 119; Fig. 148
Judith Killing H,./o/»T,;<.(Donalelli>). 81-82.
(\'ischer).
Ill, 113. 205; Fig,
99
451
IvilmsU, 153. 163. i77;U)nil)(Muhclani;el").
166. 173- 203; Kig. 214
I
Johannes. 322; I'ngtii, 322: Kii; 399
Juan de. 414: Maler Dolormn. 414; Fii;
iiiiKc
jiini,
Jupilfr and
Id
a
jMlice (della Porta), 207
JuMice: (Rogiei van o/H,r™/o(\irKcn/odeRossil.253
(Cms No.
lirgin vith St. .-lone. 156; Fig. 195
Leoni, Leone, 254-55, 259;. )/"n"/WMH;jn'-»,
Milan; Casa
254; Fig. 319; medals, 254;
Omcnoni; laiude, 254-55; Fig. 320;
Moroni and, 255; stale portrait loimula,
gelo), 124, 247, 389. 416: Fig. 306;
.Anal,
(Nardo
(Rogier van der Weyden). 303
Last Supper: (.Andrea del Sarto). 166; (Castagno). 90; (colorplale 17) 105; (Durcr),
Vinci), 148, 153. 157;
Fig, 178; (Tintoretto), 243, 407; Fig. 301;
(Veronese, P.). 245
Laurana. Francesco. 118; Battisia Sftmii.
Countess of Vrbiiio. 118; Fig. 147; medals.
\I medal.
118;
Truimphal
Allonso ol ,\ragon, sculpture.
(Urbino: Duial
Palace), 126; Figs. 159, 160
Hans Scbald, 355
St. Vr^iihi
and
the
Prime tC.n-
(
l.<-ou..rd(>. 149-,50. \br.(.rucilixion. 150;
Florence: Badia; painliug. 149; Fig. 179;
Br;mcacci (;hai)el; frescoes. 149; Resurreilion oj
Vilale da
Bologna),
49
Legend -./ ///(• Wood of rtf f.nm (Pielo llfll.l
Franccsca), 100-101; (colorplale 18) UHi.
Figs. 123-25
Legnaia: \illa Carducci: frescoes ((.asl.iguo), 89-90,
14; Fig. 106
Lcinbeiger, Hans, 351, 383
49, Fig.
Drusiana. 149-50:
Rome:
S.
Maria
loMU
Hall.
^W
177, 203
l.coii.ndoda Vinci, 15
452
16,
81. 118, 147-48,
lres<(>es, 45, 49; (colorplale 6)
39; Birth of the Virgin. 43; Fig. 40; Deposition
the Cross. 43; Fig. 39; A/«/fo>u/«,43
from
compared with Ordonez, 413
Lorenzo de' .Medici, 127-28, 159
Lorenzo de Medici, tomb ol (Mi< helangelol,
Loren/.etlo
Figs.
203-5, 402:
252, 254
Lorenzo Monaco, 57-58.
ol the
60, 74: -idoralwu
Magi. 58; (colorplale
9) (i5;
iradition and. 298;
.Madonna and Child. 78. 298; Fig. 92;
traits at edges of Iresiocs, 93
|ioi-
t.orraine, 397
Lose her, Sebastian, 383
Liil
and .ihraham (Boquetaux,
195; Bishop Rossi. 194; Christ Taking
Leave of His .Mother. 194-95; Fig. 245; dualit\, 194, 195; Susanna and the Elders. 194
Louis XL 364; medal of (Lauranal, 118
tion.
Louis XIV, 17, 177
Louvain, 306, 308
Louvie, see Paris
Luca della Robbia, 79. 80- 8 94; compared
wilh Michelozzo, 94; .Mailonna. Patron of
1
,
the Doctor's Guild. 80, 81;
(colorplale 16)
88; Robbia w;ire, 80-81
Lucas van Leyden, 375-76. 385; ''•''"-'' Shuum
People. 375; Fig. 467; compared with
Picasso. 375; Conversion of Paul. 405; Dnvid
Saul. 376; Fig. 468; despair as theme.
375-76; Last judgment. The. yib: (colorto the
and
plale 58) 378; .Milkmaid. 376; Fig. 469;
.\;os« Striking the Rock. 376; Raising'of
Lazarus. 376
Lucca; Cathedral; Canetto tomb (Jacopo
della Querela), 60; Fig. 62; S. Frediano:
Iresco (.Amico Asperiini), 190; Fig. 238
Lucretia (Mcill. 383; Fig. 474
Ludger
torn
Ring ihe Younger, 404
Luini, Bernardino, 151
330
Madonna and
primitivism, 300, 315
oL 382, 394
cllateaux
Bertr.iud dii
Loisel, Robert, 278; St. Denis;
(.uesclin tomb, 278; Fig. 348
Lombard, Lambert,
Floiis, F.,
Roselli
389;
compared
"iili
390
Pieiro, 131, 381 ; Ri'/o and. 131;
131; \ enice: S. Miiri.i del
tomb,
lullio,
185-86
Ambrogio,
43. 45,
(Coppo
di Marcovalilol,
(Giovanni Pisanol.
((Uiido da Sieua), 25-26:
(Kaschaucr). 298; Fig. 368; (Lippi, Fra
(Michelangelo).
Filipp..), 78, 298; Fig. 92;
22;
Fig.
12;
Nuremberg), 324-25, 334.
40l;(Sansovim.,J.), 205
Child Enthroiml with Angels:
(Duccio). 37-38; Fig, 29: (Gioiio). 30-31.
103- iSl. Sebald,
Fig.
Madonna and
Fig. '25
Madonml and Child Enthroned uM
Angels and
2) .34
l.ombarch, 17, 28, 50
Longleal ISnnllison), 400-1, Fig. 501
Loose Company Hemessc-n), 385; Fig. 478
Loren/elti,
Child:
25- Fig. 16; (D;iddi), 47;
Prophets (f:imabue). 26. 30. 37; (colorplale
Miracoli lavade, 131: Fig. 168
Lombardo,
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 16
Machuca, Pedro, 393, 414; (.ranada: Royal
Palace, 392-93; Fig. 486
St. Deins Preaching. 267: Fig.
the
Lochnei, Slelan, 300, 328; .Idoralwu of
.Magi. 300. 303: Fig. 373; peispective,
Lombardo,
Ma"llre aux),
270; Fig. 335
Lollo, Lorenzo, 194-95, 196, 223: Annuncia-
Macioi, 267;
Fian/, 49
Utile Flowers of Saint Fiancis. 47
/,nr. ..A...(Vasari), 258
L.iiie,
Corona^
lion of the lirgin. 57, 58, 277; Fig. 59;
frescoes, Ciolhic, 92
Mabuse, see Clossacrt, Jan
Machaui, (luillaume de, 269
Masaccio. 78:
54; Fig
42
Loren/etli, Pietro, 43-45; Assisi; S. Francesco. Lower Church, frescoes, 43: Fig.
«/ SI. Heruiird. 149; Fig. 179
Lippi. Fra Filippo. 78. 118. 149; Fleinalliau
(
Leo X.
the Counlry.
Luther, .Martin, 346, 348, 349
1
Liip/ig:
45; Good Government in the City. 45,
in
49; (colorplale 6) .54; Good Government
45. 49; Fig. 42; Presentation
in the Temple. 45; Fig. 41; Siena; Cily Hall,
lion.
sopra Minerva: frescoes. 149; Fig. l8o;.Vm/i/
I'hdip Destrovng u Dragon. 149; Triumph
fnw"
«/,S7. Thomas .-iqmuas. 149; Fig. 180;
3o<);
paccio), 130; Fig. 167
Leda: (C:oJreggiol, 203;
-^f"'-
'-iH^;
Fig. 345;
Broederl;mi, 277; Jnumiry.
Hemes
(hloher. 277; Fig. 346; Tr'es Riches
(color302;
Berry.
277,
ol the Duke of
l.is/l,
118
126, 129;
277-78;
Brothers.
302; (colorplale 42)
pared with: Boucicaui Master. 278- 79;
di Cione). 46; (Orcagna). 47; Fig. 46;
Uavelaking of
llic
.it
couii\.u<1, 395;
Liege, 389
isitation.
Life of Marv, Master ol the, 328; I
329; Fig. 411
ti/cu/ St. Denis (Macirn), 267: Fig. 330
n-l-1%.
(Mailani"), 39-40: Fig. 32: (Michelan-
Laurana, Luciano,
F"uui.nn
^"'-
Loumc
490
Leu," Hans, 355
Levden, Lucas van, ^.r Lmas van l.evdeu
Libenilc da \erona, 244
Fig.
Limbourg
Last Judgment: (Bartolomineo, Fra), 165;
(Cavallini), 26-27; Fig. 19; (Lucas van
I.evdcn). 376; (colorplale 58) H7«;
118; Louis
Innocents, 395;
((;iottc)), 30;
132, 190; Fig. 17!
(Leonardo da
Lescot, Pierre, 395;
20, Pisa), 19; Fig. 3;
Fig. 24
Lnmnilalion ovrr C'Arts/(\itiiilo dell
Legend
and Shoulders.
Fig. 21
(Engelbrechl.s), 373; Fig. 466;
l,;uilcnsach,
.\eik
liescoes), 27. 29;
Life of St. Francis (.Assisi
Coniad. 287
Lainberger. Simon. 331
Laib.
ol
Human
157; Fig. 198; unilv, 180; Veiroccbioand,
147, 369; I'irgin ol the Rorks. 148; Fig. 177;
use ol, 254
Sf//-/?«rtrrt/7
tal
Arch
\ludi,-. ol the
dcgli
.\1arlin (Siinoiie Martini). 42;
Adam. 336-41; Flamhoyant
346:
201,
199;
368
33
Nuremberg:
Uimenlallim:
Fig.
157;
of works, 185; realism, visual, 147; return lo Florence, 156; sculpture, 157;
Kmghl. Death, and Dn'il (Dlirer). 345
Knighting of St.
Fig. 38
Deluge.
imil
Kev. Willetn. 390
King Arlhin (Emperor Maximilian tomhl
(Vischer), 342; Fig. 426
KLy. o/7urfni.(Barna da Siena). 49; Fig. 47;
(Bertram. Master). 286; Fig. 355: (Giotto),
30; (colorplale 3)
C'.orieggio and,
148;
Florence;
Cilv Hall: painting, 156-57; Fig. 196: Ctnevra de' Benci. 147; inventiveness, 148;
La-.! Supper. 148, 153, 157; Fig. nS: Leda.
203;
210; Milan, 118; A/(.m//,/.sa. 15. 157- 161;
Fig. 197; niobilitv, 157, 167, ,176: prints
298; Fig. 368
Kempis.
ol CihliM.M?; Fig. 142: Battle ol .inghiaii.
156-57, l6t; Fig. 196; Bramanteand, 152;
composition,
'»\xa,%uA. 203; Fig. 250
Kaschauei. Jacob, 297-98; M'ldovmi
156-57, 209; .Idoralion of the .Magi.
147-48, 165; Fig. 176; auaiomical studies,
Fig.
198: .-Innunrmtion 147; Baptism
157:
150,
(yy.
.lununria-
.Madonna and Child with a Goldfinch (Daddl),
32; Fig. 27
Madonna and Child
with
Two
(liovaimi), 138; Fig. 173
Saints (Bellim,
„n,ISiu„h
.M"'/"//""
iBfllirii. (i(iv..nni|. 182;
M.I
228
llK.
Mmlimna ami Siiliih
(M^irv
BuiKiiiitlv). 365; ¥>).
<)l
Mmhmmi
h a niwl.m- Sirm-
Friimril
Climih (Kvck.
in n
|.
455
VMn),290: Fin-
Fig
(F.>m|U>»> (Flamlc-s). 366;
Oiviem
Callicdialj.
Mrrcun ((.i.imb<.l<>gn.il. 252
Merode allarpiece iFlem.ille. Masiei
oil.
294; Fig. 365
Me\ei
.
Mavor of
Basel. 361-62
Michel, lean. 322; Ealamhmral
oj
Chnsl. 322.
:w«
i59;Fig. 2(xi;Bandinelli;iiid.205-6;««H'<
Casciua. 156; Fig. 203; Crealiou aj Adam.
(>/
173. 205: Fig.
15.
Cnmarau
Sihl.
1;
Creahon
167; Cujad.
oj
Eve. 167;
Damned
/MiW.
159;
Mah.iicl, lean, 276
a
wilh a
of
(VimIk-tI.
iVouil
(Meniling), 316; Fig. 390
\laTitega//a. .-Xnloniii. 132
Manlegaz/a. CriMi.fimi. 132
M.iiilegna. .\nclrea. [04-9. llS. 175. 188.
254; K.mpaie.l wilh: Malisse
[38;
I'icassci,
tisler\; Fresco, 59; Fig. 61;
(
I'ncelle).
M.iss^s.
Filian,
192;
Ihad
and
Christ.
Itiilorplaie
107; Figs. 133. i34;Padiia:
OveMii
Chapel: liescoes. 104-9; f'K 130;
/'«<•
nawus. Ill; perspective. 348; Hi'lnrn lo
Rome of Cardinal Gnnzagn. 10; (cciliirplale 19) W'r.Sl. Jamr\ Led In hMntlion.
104-9; Fig 130: space continiiiu. 109.
in; \cr(.n.i S.m /.eni> nipi\l .Ansina. 383
M.niniiMi. Simon. 363-64
Miirruijir ul Caiut (Veronese.
245
Alexander ami Roxanu (Sod. ml..).
P.).
151; Fig. 182
.\/«MM^',(./.S/.f.Vi//i.-ii>i<'(B.Ml..liv,rhoma>, 102
Man Brmhng
.\tone\. 75.
phlte 12) 68; Trmil\. 74. 291; Fig. 86
M.isei: \ ilia Barbaro: fresco (Veronese.
M;i
455
Mailani. Liirtii/o." 39: liiimned Souls iLa^l
rcliel;
and. 163; Tribute
:\f>
Fig.
Marriage
ol Si.
Ursula. 316. 319; Man -.edh a Cam. 316;
Fig. 390; Si. C;hiislopher all.ii piece. 315;
Fig. 389; /.iiu>/ and. 366
"David or .AjHtllo". 205;
Dauu. 205; Fig. 254;"">. 205; Deluge. 167.
3S
lig.
403; Fig.
iiie
MiclulangeloBuoiiarioli.l 5.159-61. 164. 186.
203-5. 215. 216. 247-5'>- 258. 259; Bacchus.
p.ired with Lccello. 77- Exlmlsmn /mm
I'arndise. 74. 289; Fig 87; Florence:
(.1
Meniling. Hans. 315-16; Sin
S M.oia Novella. 74, 291; Fig. 86; Mirarle
ol Ihe Shaihm: 74-75; Fig. 88; portraits,
291; portraits in Frescoes. 93; Raphael
Margin: (Duccki). 3!*-3y: ^IK^
19)
Lihrariau
lirlon (ManH-glia). 201
(Coiu-iigiol. 202-3
Moo
llie
Suullhisljildgmeull. 247; Fig. 307;
Hiilron of ihr Dorlor'.' Cuilil ll.ina
341-42;
uilh
(B;ireiiclsi.
Cll.ipel: liescoes. 74-75. 149; Figs. 87. 88;
Riililiia).
Imlgmml
Can Club
Ihr Tr,rs (Bdlini. (.iovannil, 139
Mmhmmi uilh Samljnomr ("Oav " allal piL-ce).
Mmlonna
M.is;ic(io. 74-75. 80. 82. 92. 93.
(lunch
210
Fig.
.\f»/,.;i««
H'
125; Sixlus
364: Fig.
Hungary (l.eoni). 254; Fig. 319
Tudor. Queen (Mor). 390; Fig. 4*3
.\/«ii 0/
Man
212; Fig. 265
Ma,lo:ina 0/ Ihr «».«/>
dome.
Ptalina. 125; Fig. 157
.Members oj a
505
Ermmiis (Bouls). 307: Fig-
«/ Si.
.\larl\rdom oJ
393
,i;nrf»nH«
njClinsl. 125; Fig. 158; I.oiei<.;SaniaC:;is;i.
Fig. 61
Marltrdom
Mml.wiw
Ma
•
.Manor ell. Bernard. 411; S7. George and ihe
Dra/ron.^u: Fig. 518
Marhrdom oj John Ihe Haptisl (Masolino). 59;
Folh, 125. 179. 195; Asieusiou
Milkmaid (Lucas van Levden). 376; Fig. 469
Millet. J. F. 416
Minio. Ti/iano. 246
Mino da Fiesole. 96. 164; Pirro de"" Medici,
96: Fig. 117
.Miracle of the .ingry
Fig, 98
Son (Donalello). 81. 242;
.Miracle of BoLsnia (Raphael). 174
.Miracle ofS. Frediano
i
,\niico .Asperlini). 190:
Fig- 238
Miracle oj the Speaking Infant (Titian). 192:
Fig. 241
453
Miraclr
iif
Si.
Liin (Aliiihieio
aiitl
Avanzo).
itj
thr Slififlmr (Masaccio), 74-75;
88
Miracle
III
Ihe Strive (Tiiilorelto). 241; (ioIdi-
Fij^.
plaie 38)
238
o/ Siiiiil
Mark
(
Miiiih
llir
Xalivily: (Altdorfer), 350; (Barocci), 26t;
(Wit/). 297; (color-
(colorplate 40) 240; (Botticelli), t20. 343;
Fig. t50; (Geertgen tot Sint Jans), 31.5;
nf .irles (Giotto). 31; Fig.
Mimniliiiis Draft
plate 45)
iif Fi.'.ties
III
Itir
Fig. 388;
.ImlmsMitim
Tomiiiaso
Miicltiiig
III
Li.\a
26
SOQ
.MiMiilhriipr. Tlie (Bruegcl).
.\lmiiiii
(la
(St.
Modena).
Uisiila cvtie)
50. 285; Fig. 50
Ctirul (Griinewald).
(Leonardo da
347-48
Vinci). 15. 157. 161;
385: Fig. 477
Monicale Cathedral. 15: (colorplate i) X'l
Monlagna. Bartoloitirneo. 140. 189
Monlepiilciano: C:.illicdral: sculptme (M.Fig.
chelo/./o). 94;
2; Malorplate7) ;'>5; Christ Rescuing the Disci-
Florence;
Or San
Micbele,
relief sculpture, 47; S. Croce; fresco.
Triumph o] Death. 47; Beggars. 47: Fig. 46
Ordoiie/, Barlolimie. 413; compareil with
Loren/elto. 413; Enlomhinenl ol Christ
(Barcelona Cathedral). 413; Fig. 521
Or San Michele. sec Florence
Orsi. l.elio. 224-25
Orlolano. 189
Oivieto:
\;mni
235-36;compared to:Tin-
toretto. 241: Vignola, 235; Mannerism.
235-36; writings. 236. proportion, three-
P.iilei
423
.\viiph (Goujon). 395; Fig. 491
ples. 46;Fig.43;
ol
241
Palladitj. .Andrea.
276-77, 287
Orc.igna (Andrea di Clone). 46-47. 51, 57.
Moulins, Master of, 364; Hay and, 364;
.Xalwily mlh Cardinal Rnlin. 364; Fig. 452;
Antonio; candlestick (Riccio).
186; Fig. 233; sculpture (Donatello). 81.
242; Fig. 98; St. George Oratory; fresco
(.•Mtichiero and Avanzo). 104; Fig. 52:
Scuola del Santo: fresco (Titian), 192; Fig.
and
.Apollo
alinn (Stoss),335; Fig. 421
Oclohrr
Mourner (Duke Philip
Fig. 97; S.
Paris;
Sinking the Rock (Lucas van Levden),
Mostaert. Jan, 373; Xeie World Landscape.
ITi' Fig. 465; Patinir and. 373; Piero di
painting (Giusto de
230; Odeon (Falconetto). 229-30: Piazza
del Santo; sculpture (Donatello). 81. 115;
Parm;,:
376
22.
Menabuoi). 50; Church of the Eremitani:
0\etari Chapel; frescoes (Mantegna).
104-9; Fig. 130; Citv Gates (Falcc;)netto).
Paradise
cafunii). 210; Fig. 263
.\loses
.Altar, with Corona(colorplate 50) 338;
29-30. 31; (colorplate 3) 35; Figs. 23. 24;
sculpture (Cliovanni Pisano). 22; Fig. 12.
P;ilniez/ano.
house, favade (Krafft). 341.
Tablels o)
1;
Palma. Jacopo (I'alma Vecchio). 187.
fis 356
89-90.
33
Padua; Arena Chapel; frescoes (Giotto).
Baptistery:
452
341; Fig. 422: St. Sebald; sculpture. 324-25.
(Sluicr). 274; Fig.
340
Moses Defending llie Daughters
perspective, 348
465
Niccolc")
with Sloss. 335; High
tion 0/ the I'lrgin,
Neufchatel. Nicolas. 403. 404; Hilliard and.
405: Johannes .\eudorler and His Son, 403;
Fig. 506
\ne World Landscape (Mostaert). 373; Fig.
383;
Fig.
(
Pacher. Michael. 331-32. 412; compaicd
434: (Nicola
(Schongauer), 329;
Mm- Famous Men and Women
1
Moroni. Giambaltista. 255. 404; Leoni and,
205;
Fig. 6;
Cardinal Rolin
of). 364; F'g-
Nonesuch
173.
;
Fig.-
SemrsLs (Diirer). 343; Fig. 429
Neo-Platonism. 120
.Vtj;AM
Fig. 181
Master of. 296
Moses (.Michelangelo).
307: landscape. 306; Raising o] Lazarus.
306; Fig. 379
P:idua. t:huich .il tli.
Ovet:iri (Chapel.
to;
412
.\ativity with
F'K- 197
1
(Giovanni Pisano). 22; Fig.
(Griinewald). 346. 348;
408
Monaco, l.oren/o. \ee Loren/o Monaco
Mimeycliaiiger and His Wile (Royinerswaele).
156;
Clone. 46-47. 74; Chrul Carrying
Florence; Badia,
Iresco, 46; Fig. 44; Last Judgment. 46;
di
the Cross, 46; Fig. 44;
di Cambio), 24; Fig. 14
Ouwater, Albert van. 305-6: Bouts and. 306.
Paradise. 46
lintorcllo). 242
Miiaciiliius AppraraiiCf uj Si. Francis lo
Mniia
.Aragon. it6. t26; Fig. t44
\aido
Mirncin
(
62; St. Luke, 62; Fig. 67
Naples; Triumphal Arch of Alfonso of
50, 1041 Fig. 52
Mirtiflf
C.uhedial;
liescoes
(Signorelli).
124-25. 343; Fig. 156; f.naur(.(Amacico). 131 -32;Collcgio Boiromeo;
159-60. 250: Fig. 201. Fig. 313: (Morales),
415; ^'lg 524: (yuarli.n). 321: Fig. 395:
I.Sehasliano del PiomlH,). 187: Fig. 235
Pietru Mellini (Benedetto da Maiano),
120-22: Fig. 153
facade (Tibaldi). 257: Fig. 325
Pazzi Chapel. S. Croce. ier Florence. S.
Croce
Pilgram. .Anton. 327: Portrait. 327: Fig. 408
Pilon. (iermain. 397: Birague tomb. 397:
Corp'.e (Balbiani tomb). 397: Fig.
493:
Pearl uf Brabant allarpiece. 308
and Ihr BirH\ Xrtl (Brucgel). 408
Pfasant Wedding Danef (Bruegel). 407
PetLsant
Henry
II tomb. 397; religiosilv and.
397
122-23. 150: Alexander VI.
Irescoes for. 123: Pius II Irescocycle. 123
Pisa:Baptistei-v:sculplure(GiovanniPisano)
Peasant Wedding Fea^l (Bruegel), 407; Fig.
513
Penc/. (ieorg. 355
Periiio del Vaga. 214-15. 26o- Fnll of Ihr
Piniuritchio.
22;pulpii
(Nicola Pisiino). 21;
Fig. 6;
Cjlhedial: pulpit ((;iovanni Pisano). 22
Fig. irCiinix.Siinio: fresco
(Traini). 49
Fig. 48: sculpture (lino di Cliimaino)
C/nn/i, 215: Fig. 269; (ienoa. court decora-
Parmigianino and. 214;
Raphael and. 214: Rome: Castel Sant'.^ngelo. 215; Rosso and. 214. 215; Tibaldi
tions. 215. 256;
and. 256
(Cellini). 216: Fig. 271
Perugia. 94; fountain: (Arnollo di C:ainbio).
24; (Nicola Pisaiio). 21
102-3: Annunriatton. 102: compared toC;iovanninode'Grassi.i02;drawing, 102-3: individualism, 103: medals,
I
la Si. Pelrr.
103: St. George
122. 167; (colorplaie 21) 133:
compared to Bartolommco. Fra. 165:
Cruhfixwn. 122: influence. 122. 189: Vatican: Sistine Chapel: irescoes. 122. 167:
(colorplaie 211 133: I'iwoh of
Si.
Fig.
Bernard,
179: Rome: Pala/zo .Ma.ssimi
Clolonne. 179. 214: Fig. 258: Villa Farnesina. 177-79. 187; Fig. 221
Pisano). 22. 30: Figs. 9. 10
Pius II. 83
Pius
Pesaro altarpiece: (Bellini. Giovanni). 138:
Francesco:
painting
415
Plevdcnwurff. Hans. 334
Poggio a Caiano: Villa: facade (Giuliano da
Sangallo), 128: Fig. 162: fresco (Pontormo). 208: Fig. 259
Poitiers: Chateau of the Duke of Berrv
(Berlin-
ghieri). 19-20: Fig. 4
89-90
Petrus Chrisius, see Christus, Petrus
II of .Sp.,in, 393-94
Philip
(Dammariin). 276. 317. 400:
Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 272,
274, 275, 276: tomb ol, 274: Fig. 342
Philip the Fair, Breviary of (Honorc. .Master). 266: Fig.
duke of Burgundy.
291
Philip the Tall, King, 267
PInlippa 1.1 England, tomb of (|can
Picasso:
tle oj
288.
Ten Saked Men,
90.
1
1
3.
119.
152.
343; Fig 109: einbroiderv design. 90:
engraving. 90. 329: Hercnlr^ and .Intarus:
painling. 90. 113. 119: Fig. 108: sculpture.
de
113: Fig. 138:
Hmuirs and
with: Bellini, Giovanni,
Vatican:
Fig
Pollaiuolo.
Pome
St.
1
13:
Petcls: SixlusIV limib. 113:
139
Simime
.Santa
I
del.
rinita
>(»•
Cronara.
II
(.Ammanati). 233-34
Fiesole), 96; Fig.
Ponlormo. Jacopii. 208-9. 346. 397. 416:
Picroilella Francesca. loo-ioi. iir.Hapli.\m,
Entomhment. 208-9. 221: (colorplaie 34)
101: Fig. 124: Caslagno and. 100: compared to modern artists, lot: Death 0/
100; Fig.
123: Dream oj Con-
•J
.idam.
loi:
flagellation,
lol:
Fig. 125:
purilv ol form. 101: Legend 0/ the ItVW
r(/M/-f.ro». 100-1: (colorplaie 18) l()(j: Fig.
'23-5; perspective, 101. 113: portraits of
count and countes.s of L' rhino, 101 Resur;
rertion.
45;
Presentation oj the Virgin: (Peruzzi). 179: (Tintoretto). 241-42; Fig. 299; (Titian). 226
Henry
Primaticcio. Francesco. 224;
lomb.
II
Prinlmaking. 183. 185
Privc.
Thomas.
du
278; St. Denis: Bcrirand
Guesclin tomb. 278; Fig. 348
Procession in Piazzn
San .Marco
(Bellini.
Gen-
no
Prophet ("Lo Zucconr") (Donaiello). 79. 274;
Fig.
93
Protestantism. 346, 349. 352. 361-62. 368.
400, 401, 404
Provence, 319-21
Provost, Jan. 366
Pucelle.Jean. 266-68.270. 2%^: .innuncinlion
Ifid.lbT. Fig. 331; Belleville Breviarv,
Fig. 332:
color.
268:
Hours of Jeanne d"Evreux.
331; Saul
and
drolenes. 267:
266. 267; Fig.
Dai'id. 267; Fig.
332
Pulzone. Scipione. 404
Pnntshment of the Damned (Signorelli). 124-s.
343; Fig. 156
Quarton. Enguerrand.3i9-2i:C(tr«Mflrt«ii
of
the I'irgin. 319: Fig. 394: Pieta. 321: Fig.
395: RfiLsing of Lazants. 321
Querela. Jacopo della.
Querela
Quinze-\ingl. Cha|K-l of.
sre
Jacopo delta
see
Paris
Christ bejorr Pilole. 208. 209: Fig. 260:
117
slanliiie.
da Fa.A.),
Fig. 41
the
of, 113: Fig. 139: inus(ularit\ ol sl\le.
Fig. 100
Pierino da Vinci. 216
da
(Broederlam). 275. 277. 296, 331: (colorplate 41) 281
Presentation in the Temple: (Gentile
briano), 59; Fig. 60: (Lorenzetti.
Hydra. 90.
113. 119: Fig. 107; Innoceni \lil. tomb
138: Giotto, 31: [.ucas van Leyden, 375:
Mantegna, 138
Pienza: city planning (Rossellino, B). 83:
Piero de Medici (.Vlino
Pratolino: \'illa Demidoff: sculpture (Giambologna), 252: Fig. 317
"Praying Hands" (Diirer). 345
Presentation and Flight into Egypt
267;
Polidoro da Caravaggio. 214
Pollaiuolo.Anloniodel.90.94. lis. iSb-.Bat-
286
compared
344
Polack. Jan. 334
329
Philip the (JcxhI.
Fig.
0/ Polly ( Erasmus). 368. 405
Praio: S. Maria dcllc Carceri (Giuliano da
Sangallo). 128; Figs. 163. 164
tile). 130; (colorplaie 22) 134
Procession of the .Magi (Benozzo). 93: Fig.
Iresco cycle (Pinturicchio). 123
Planet Irniu (FJausbuch .Master). 331: Fig.
(Titian). 193
l.icge).
II
410
Praue
Rosslure iParler). 285; Fig. 352: Mannerism.
too: Fig.
122: Story oJ the
Qneen
o] Sheha: 101: (colorplaie 18) !()(>
Piero di Cosimo. 150, 165: Death oj PriM-n\,
150: Discin'er) oj
Honn.
150: (cgiia). 25
.IngeloDoni. 161: Fig. 20$: Belle Jardinrere.
Iji. 161-63: Fig. 206: Bramante and. 17980: Death of .Innnia-.
J. vail). 291: Fig.
362
Portrait, of
a Collide (Meil). 383: Fig. 475
Ponr.iiis: 289. 291-93. 401-5: com|>cf Florence
Roliii.
St.
279. 280. 298: Fig. 350
Chancellor. 291. 303; Fig. 360
Romanino. Girolamo. 201. 223. 260; Brescia
and Ciemona frescoes coniparcd. 201;
Death of Clro/ialia. 201; Fig. 248
Romano. Giulio. srr Giiilio RoiiKino
Rome: .Aracoeli church: Irescoes. (Pinluricchio).
123; Capiloline Hill; civic
center (Michelangelo). 247; Figs. 308-10:
(asiel .Sam Angelo: fresco (Perino del
Vaga). 215: 11 Gesii (Vignola). 234. 259;
Caprini
(Bramante). 177; Fig. 220; Palazzo Farnese; la^-ade (Sangallo the V'ounger). 180;
Fig. 225: Palazzo" Massimi alle Ciolonne:
la<,adc
(Peruzzi).
214;
179.
Fig.
268:
facade
Palazzo
Regensburg. 350-51
Reims Cathedral. 21. 39
Religion, thurch reform. 247; see also
26-27; Fig. 19: S. Eligio degli Oreflci:
(Raphael). 179: S. Maria del Popolo: Chigi
Antonio,
S.
Chapel (Raphael). 179; Fig. 222; S. Maria
della Pace (Bramante). 152; S. Maria
Reformation
sopra Minerva; Caraffa Chapel; fresco
llippi. Fihppino). 149; Fig. 180; S. Pietro
Monlorio (lempietto) (Bramante).
152-53. 235; Figs. 189. 190; tomb (.Am-
S
St.
Reliirn
iij
Return
to
the
Hml
Rome
of
Silvin
(Fonte
Ciirilmul Gotiztigti
cia). 60: Fig.
CJaia)
(Man-
64
Riano, Diego de. 392
Riccio. .Andrea, 186: Anon. 186; Fig
compared with Giorgione. 186
(Rene
233;
deCh.'ilniis
iiano) {.Jilberti). 83-84. 94: Fig. 101;
(Chapel ol the Planets; sculpture (Agi>stino di Duccio). 94; Fig. 113; school. 49
S.
Cauce
Ri/z(i..-\nti>nio. i3i:A'i'c. 131; Fig. 169; l.oin-
baido.
Fig.
fresco
174-75: Fig. 216; (Sodonia).
182: \illa {;iulia (\igiiola
and
Madama
(Raphael). 179. 256
tomb (l.ombardo.
P.). 131
Rosselliiio..Antonio.96:Sr Sebastian .qb. 159.
164. 205; Fig. 116
Rosscllino. Bernardo, 95. 96; Effig\ (Bruiii
tomb). 95; Fig. 1 14: moldings and frames.
95: Pienza: citv planning. 83: Fig. 100
Rossi, iir \inceiizode' Rossi
and. 131
R.ibbia. w, Luca della Robbi.i
Robl)i;i ware. 80-81
Robert of Naples. 41
Rode. Hernien. 328
R.Klin. 203
Rogier van der \Vi\den. iii. 301-3. 307.
P..
308; .iilomlloli 0/ the .Magi (Coluinb.i .ill. 11 piccel. 303. 315: Fig. 377; ANaoiaialion.
Deposition
the Cross. 209; Fig. 261;
/)(.«;
engravings, 209: Mo\e\ De/enilnig the
Daughters „/ Jelhio. 209; (colorphlle 35)
219; FonI;iiiiebIe;iii. 209. 215. 394; Perino
del X.ig.i.iiid. 214. 215; PrimalKcio.md.
224
Rolhenbiiig
;ill.irpiece.
S. Cecilia, see
Marinus van.
385:
.MoueMhange, ami His lli/e. 385; Fig. 477
Rubens. Pelei P.iul. 369. 391
Rudolf 11.410
Ruslui. Gi.inll.liuesco. i;,j:John the Baptist
Preaehliii^. 137.
1
60; Fig. 56
325:
Saarineil. Hero. 22
.Sacramental Shrine (Krafftl. 341: Fig. 422
Sacred Allegon (Bellini. Giovanni). 139. 182:
(colorplale 24) l:i(i
Sacred aiul Projane Love {T\UM\). 193: (loloi-
C.ninlixioa all.irpiece. 302; Fig. 375; Death.
303; DifoMlaoi liom the f.iy/vi. 302; (colorplale 46) ;illl; design, iii.iiheni.iiic.il. 303;
Sacrifice «/ Isaac: (Brnnclleschi). 51. 52. 62;
Fig. 54; (Ghiberli). 52. 60; Fig. 55
302; Baptism. 303; Biith. 303; Bl.iilellli
altaipieie. 303: Bia(|iie nipl\ch. 303;
compared wilh
456
Muflschcr.
plate 31) 199
413
(Sodoma). 150
Rome
.Martyrdom of St.
.Margaret. 27. 49; Fig. 22; Riniini school.
49
.Sainte-Chapellc. Paris. 69
Christopher: (Bouls the Younger). 308.
St.
Nuremberg). 325.
334: Fig. 403: aliarpiece (.Vlemling). 315;
Fig. 383; (in Si. Sebald.
Fig.
S.
389
Croce. see Florence
Uenis; .Abbev Church;
lonili (I.oisel .mil
Prive). 278; Fig. 348
Denis Preaching (Life ol Saint Oeiiis)
(Maciol). 267; Fig. 330
Domenico. see Bolo.gna: Orvieto
S.
Dominic: aliarpiece (Tlaini), 49; tomb
of (Niccolo deir .Area). 137
Eligio degli (")refici.
S.
Saint Kligius
.\*'c
Rome
(Nanni
di Banco), 62
His .Shop (Clhrislus). 305, 319,
369; Fig. 378
S. Felicil,'.. .,-,• Florence
S Francesco, see Aiezzo: Assisi; Florence;
m
St. Eligiiis
;
Rii
Francis aliarpiece (Berlinghieri). 19-20;
St.
Fig.
4
FiancLs in Ecstasy (Bellini. Giovanni), 139,
S(
182, Fig. 174
Francis .Meeting Poverty. Chastity, and
,S/.
Ohedience (Sassetta). 98: Fig. 120
ediano. see Lucca
f;™r^,-;(Donatello). 62. 79; Fig. 71; (in
Prague). 325
St. George and the Dragon: (Marlorell), 41 1:
Fig. 518: (Notkc). 325. 335, 352: Fig. 405
St. George nt a Wood (.Altdorter). 350; Fig.
S
Fi
,S7
347
Rovmerswaele.
Ghent
St. Cecilia. .Master ol:
(Peruzzi).
221:
Barbara
see \'enice
Saint Catherine of Siena
Rosso Fiorenlino. 209. 346: Awumplion. 209:
Riemenschneider. Tilniami. 332; comparetl
with Stoss. 332; F>,'e. 332; Fig. 416
Riniiin. 94: S. Francesco (Tempio M.ilates-
Rinuccini C;ha|>el. >« Florence.
151; Fig.
Roselli
(Jatopo della Que.
Richier. Ligier. 397 ;£//ig>
tomb). 397: Fig. 495
(Raphael).
256:
.Amniaiiali). 233. 234; Figs. 288. 289: Villa
(Brucgel). 407
tegna). 110; (colorplate 19) 107
Rhea
Fai ncsina
213.
St.
Monlepulciano
San Cassiano.
St.
\illa
s,-f
altar (Berruguete),
S. Biagio. ,ee
da
187.
Rome
His Study (Carpaccio). 130.
Bavo Cathedral.
San Benito
cesta). too: Fig. 122: (Pucelle). 267:
m-T)'
in
135
Barbara Betrayed (Legend of
(Jiovanni). 139; (Grunewald). 333, 346.
348; (colorplate 52) S40; ( Pieio della Fran-
Vatican;
298
aliarpiece) (Fiancke, Master), 299; Fig.
371
St.
Cruther aliarpiece). 334; Fig. 419
Reutnectmn aj the Demi (Signorelli). 124
Resiirretlluli of Dnisiann (Lippi. Filippino).
149-50
Augustine
.V(.
Pieiroin \incoli;
sculpiuie (Michelangelol. 173. 205; Fig.
214; S. Tiinita dei .Monli; liesco (Danicle
N'olieria). 259: Fig. 327; \'atican. see
scll(M)l).
182; (colorplate 23)
St.
ni.inali): 232; Fig. 286: S.
and Paul (W'ilz
Padua
Floreme
S. .Apostoli. see
.S(.
111
ResurreelHin (Altdorler). 351; (Bellini.
see
S. -Apollonia. ^cr
.Aposloli; lrcscf)es(.Mclozzocia Forfi). 125.
Fig. 158; S. Cecilia; fresco (Cavallini).
Counter-Reformation: names of
298. 319
348; Fig. 417
Saints Anthony
ger). 180. 230; Fig. 223; Palazzo
180: SS.
Rembrandt. 403
Rene of .Anjou. n5.
Reni. Guido. 260
Anthony with Sts. Augustine and Jerome
(Isenheim aliarpiece) (Hagenauer). 333,
Minufavade (.Sangallolhe Youn-
Fig. 292;
Farnese(Sangallothe \'oiinger).
individuals; Proieslaiitism;
beginning with "Saint" are
etc.
Palazzo
dei
Consenalori:
(Michelangelo). 247; Fig. 310;
.
— names
alphabetized without regard to S., St., .Sant\
Last Jiutgiiient. 303; St
aliarpiece. 303; Fig. 376: St. Luke
Panittag the I'ngni. 149. 302; Fig. 374
(coUjrplate 26) 70; Fig. 207
Ratgeb. Jerg. 354: Flagellnlion 353-54; Fig
443
Reformation. 349. 368. 400; ifc alsn Protestantism
1
Saint
(.oihii. 302. 303:
John
438
Si.
Cieorge, Oratory of, see
Padua
George Rescuing the Princess (Pisiinello),
(Lucas van Leyden), 320
San (timignano; Chiesa Collegiata: fresco
(Barna da Siena). 48-49: Fig. 47
S. (;iohl>e aliarpiece (Bellini, Giovanni), 139
S. (>ioigio NLiggioie, \ee \'enice
S (Hcnalllli Evaii.gelisla. see Parma
.SV.
102: Fig. 126:
SS. (>io\,iniii e P.iolo. see \'enice
St.
James Led to
/L.VfYM/m/i(
Mantegna). IO4-9:
Fig. 130
.St.
St.
/erome (Foppa). 129. 150: Fig. 166
Jerome in His Stndx: (Antonello da Messina).
1
17; Fig.
i45:(C:olantonio). 298;Fig.
370; (Diiier). 345; Fig. 431
Saint Jerome with Saints Chiistopher and
AuniL-.linr (Btlliiii. l.iovanni).
Si.
Si.
182-83
John aliarpiecc (Rogiei van
W(\ck-n). 303;
m
John
ill
Jiihii Ihe
70
S.
M\ylrrin
III
Ihr.lliiiral'ilisi-
Loiti^ of
Tfitilnu.\e Crnxfuiitff Kiitff
Rtthnl
78; (colorplalc 15)
87
.S7.
Liikr
(Nanni
.S7.
Luke
Pm)iint)i ihe liigiii: (Hi-c-inskon k).
til
Baiuo). 62; Fig. 67
van
388; Fig. 481; iRogicr
i. 348-49
Florence
S.
I
S.
Irinila del Monti, see
.A.).
45.
Maria del Servi:
covaldo). 25; Fig. 16
S.
I.uca.
(Coppo
123-25;
Damned. 124-25. 343;
the
di
Mar-
Punishment
of
Fig. 156: Resur-
of the Dead. 124; Schotd of Pan.
124-25; Fig. \5d: Scourging of Christ. 123
rection
Diego de. 393; (iraliada: (.alhedral.
393: Fig. 487
Si.
(ill
de. 413
none Maitini. 41-42. 43. 47. 102:
.inuuuciation. 42; (colorplaie 5) 53: .Assisi:
S.
Francesco. Lower Church: fresco. 42:
compiired with: Duccio. 41; \'ilale
Fig. 38:
B.>l»giia (Vilale del Cavalli). 49;
of St. .Martin. 42; F'ig. 38; Marstci
(Siena. Cily Hall). 41; Fig. 36: St. Uuis
(•< Vatican
Madonna (R;iphael). '75-76
Sithium. Michael, see Xilloz. Michael
.Sixlus IV. tomb of (Pollaiuolo. .A. del). 113
SkIhs IV with the Lihranan Platina (Melozzo
Sisline
da
Forfi). 125: Fig. 157
.S7n!c (.Michelangelo). 203; Fig. 251
Claus. 272-74. 327-28; compared
with Broederlam. 275; David and Jeremiah.
Fig. 341: Dijon; Chartreuse de Champ-
Sillier.
in. )l:
p.>rial. 274. 291:
Fig. 339;
Well
.)f
Moses sculptures. 274;
Figs. 340. 341;
D.>naleilo and. 274: Flemalle. Masler of.
and. 294; Moses, 274: Fig. 340; .Mourner
of the
Smyihson. Robert. 400-1 ;Derbvshire: Hardwick Hall: facade. 400: Fig. 502; Longleal,
facade. 400: Fig. 501
Schongauer. .Martin. 329. 330; Diirer and.
369; .S'ativily, 329; Fig. 412
S.Kl.>nia. 150-51. 210. 415; .Marriage of .llex-
School of Athens (Raphael). 163; Fig. 207
School of Pan (Signorelli). 124-25; Fig. 155
Score). Jan van. 386-88. 403: .Igatha van
S.)est.
ander and Roxana.
151: Fig. 182: Saiul
Catherine of Siena, i^o: Saint Sebastian. 150
Cinrad von. 286-87:
CrucifLxian.
(Niederwildungen
Scourging of Christ (Signorelli). 123
aliarpiece). 286-87;
Fig 356
Solario. .Andrea. 150: Portrait of Chancellor
.Moroiie. 150; Fig. \il: Virgin with the Green
Cushion. 150
Sculptor's Studio (alter Bandinclli). 206; Fig.
Soldiers on the
Schoonhiwen, 387-88; Fig. 480;
257
Sebastian.) del Pi.imbo. 187-88;
compared
compared
toGioigi.me. 187; .Michelangelo and. 187.
188; PietA. 187; Fig. 235; Raphael and.
Selsenegger.
SrIJ-portrait:
Rome
City Hall: fresco ([.orenzelti.
(Philip of Biirgundv tomb). 274; Fig. 342
.-tdoration
187; R.>ine: (Villa Farnesina). i8l
Saint Theresa (Bernini). 150
rinila. see
Magilaleiie .-tpproachiug the Sepulchre.
with Holbein. 387; f:nlry 0/ Christ into
Jerusalem. 387; Fig. 479
Saint Slephrn .\tarl\reil (Francl;i). 189
St. Siilpice vino. J;.c.)po. ;uid. 205
Sans.>vino.Jiicopo. 205. 215. 230-31. 246-47;
Ammanati and. 232; Bacchus. 205; Fig.
255; Maihinna, 205; Michelangel.) iin.l.
Schiavone. .Andrea. 225;
pino). 149
S.
oj Christ.
Savoldo. Girolamo. 196-201; Brcscian
school. 196; Motetloand. 224;
.S7. .\(n>T
Saint Philip Deslnning a Dragon (l.ippl. Ulip-
(Beccalumi).
49; (colorplaie 6) .t4: Fig. 42; fresco
(Sinione .Martini). 41 Fig. 36; Fonie C^aia
(Jaopo della Querela). 60; Figs. 63. 64:
Siloe.
.S7.
(D.)naiellf)).
Fig. 7:
Siloe.
Fig. 247;
Fig. 8; inlaid lloor
22. 37:
cesca). 100; Fig. 122
Peirr Freeil frunl Prison (Raphael). 174;
(colorplaie 28) 172
.Miraculous Catch oj Fishes
(RaplMel). 175
Si. reier\. see X'aiican
:
210; Fig. 263: pulpit iNlcola Pisano). 21:
screen. 230; Fig. 283; Palazzo Beiilacqua:
la^ade. 230; Fig. 282
C;lt>
Hall (Piero dell;. F.aii-
175-76. 179: Fig. 217
Saml Peleis
494
62-64; Fig. 72;
Cathedral: fa^de (Giovanni Pisano).
Signorelli.
Oheilieuce. 98; Fig. 120
Saturn (.Agostino di Duccio), 94; Fig. 113
Saul anil Daviil (Pucellc). 267; Fig. 332
S. I'elronio, see
Siciolante da Sermonela. 259
sculpture
Baptistery
Siena:
\nlonio
164; Fig. 208; Fl.irence: altar. 164; B;.plis-
,Sl. Miiry. see
Si.
>,•.-.
Sansmin... .Andie;.. 164-65; Baptism
268-69
Fig.
Ship oJ Fools (Brant). 368
(Giovanni Pisano). 22. 37; Fig. 8
Sailsepolci.;:
Saint .Marlial ("rescoes (Malleo Giovanelli).
Duvet (. 397;
Sihyl
ciMn. 230; Verona:' Cathedral; choir
Maria della I'ace. see Rome
Maria Novella, see Florence
Maria presso San Saliro. see Milan
.Maria sopra Minerva, see Rome
(
Hall (Riano)". 392
182. 401
;
.Sanmicheli. .Michele. 230. 234. 393; classi-
Milan
Venice
Town
Shakespeare.
180; Fig. 225; Vatican;
Peters. 180. 247; Fig. 224
.Sang;illo. .Antonio ucll M.lMer).
330-31
Saiuhe/ Coello. .\U»u,>.see CckIIo
Saiigallo. .Antonio da. the Vminger. 180,
234; Rome: Mini. 180. 230; Fig. 223;
gallo
SmnI .Mark (Donaiello). 62
.SI.
I'ala/zo Vecchlo. Iresco. 222; Fig. 273;
triumph o/ Camillus. 222; Fig. 273
da Sangallo the FIder
Sangallo. (iiiillano da. see (iitiliano da San-
see
Snen
Shellev. Percv Bvsshe. 49
\eroiia
uv Vc-nice
Coriona
(lonsola/ione. \ee Todi
.Miiacoli.
deH'Orlo.
ture handbcKik, 234. 256. 385
Seurai. tot
St.
del Caltinalo. see
Maria «• \iircTiil>ciK
l.,-• Florc.uc
Si.
the
S. /.iiccalia. see
Sl.JnIiiis IhwiiiiJ Ihe
Si.
l,y
((Jonvalves). 411; Fig. S19
St.
Evaugrliil (Dolialcilo). 52; Fig.
Serlio. Seba.stiano. 394. 399. 400; architec-
Iincent feneraleil
I'.uilo).
99; Fig. 121
.S(.
Fig. 422; (Parmigianino). 210-12; Fig. 264
Lisiilac\cle( loinin.iso.l.i Modei.;il. 50,
286; Fig. 50
Si.
IVililmins (Climainii
lite
St.
.
402
(Einheck). 286; Fig. 354;
(Gerhacrl). 326; Fig. 406; (Ki-affl). 341;
Road (GraO. 355: Fig. 444
Solomon Worshiping an Idol (Haiisbuch Masler). 330; Fig. 414
Son. telle. Georges de
of Christ.
la. 322: F.nlombmeut
322. 364: Fig. 398
Spanish Chape),
see
Florence. S. Maria
Novella
.Spranger. Banol.imeus. 410: Hercules and
Omphale. 410: Fig. 516
45:
spring (Bonicelli), 119; (olorplate 20) 108
StandarrI Bearer (Gollzills). 41 1; Fig.
517
Stamina. 57; Thrbmd.
Three Graces (Raphael). 161; Fig. 204
Three Marys at the Tomb: (Bellange). 397; Fig.
496: (Duccio). 39
Three Philosnpheis (Giorgione), 182; Fig. 227
Tibaldi. Pellegrino, 256-57, 261: Bologna:
Palazzo Poggi: fresco. 257; Fig. 324: Giant,
57; Fig. 58
Stefano. 32, 51
Stefano da Zevio. 102
(Barbari). 184; Fig. 230
Slimmer. Tobias, 404; Jakub Schw\i:rr ami
Hii Wife, 404; Fig. 507
Still Life
.Stoic
257; Fig. 324; Pavia; CoUegio Borromeo.
257; Fig. 325: Perino del Vaga and. 256;
Escorial Library. 257; wittiness. 257
philosophy. 89
David |Breviar\ of Pliihp the Fair)
(Hoiiore, .Master). 266; Fig. 329
Stories of
Story
of Jaeuh ("Doors
(Ghiberti), 73; Fig. 85
Tibnrline Sibyl (Syrlin). 327; Fig.
lino
409
di Camaino. 40. 41 Bishnp Orso of Florence (Florence Cathedral). .40: Fig.
34;
Paradise")
ol
;
Tomb
Queen of Sheba (Piero della Fraiicesca). 101; (colorplate 18) 106
Story of the
of
Emperor Henry
I'll
(Campo Santo.
Pisa). 40; Fig. 33
Tintoretto. Jacopo. 236. 241-43- 245. 387;
Stoss. \eit. 334-36. 343; Annunciation.
335:
Fig. 421; compared with; Pacher.
Christ Before Pilate,
Riemenschneider. 332; Death 0/ the Virgin,
334-35; Fig. 420; engravings. 335;
Gerhaert and. 335; Mtiitsthcr and. 335:
Virgin altarpiece. 335-36
Stradanus, we Sliaet. Jan van der
Slraet, Jan van der. 409: Hunt, 409; Fig.
515
Strasbourg: Calhe93-
Vinci). 157; Fig. 198
400
ion Kulmbach. Hans,
'irgln.
4tS:Andrians,
.Stuttgart castle.
Sliess
I
of Egypt, 243:
Strozzi c;hapel. see Florence. S. Maria
Novella
the
Pr«f«-
altarpiece. .Master of the. 286
rem: Castello del Buonconsiglio: fresco
(Romanino). 201; Fig. 248
1
tatioH of the
Stripping of Christ (Greco, El). 416
of
1
com-
Bethesdu, 242: Last Supper. 243,407-8; Fig.
3ot; .Miracle of the Slave, 241: (colorplate
sculpture (Gerhaert). 326; Fig. 406
Strigel. Bernhard. 401-2: Emperor .\Ia.ximiltan and His Family, 402; Fig. 503
(Leonardo da
Fig. 300;
pared to:Palladio. 241: Titian. 241. 243:
335;
Studies
242;
Trebon
Belvedere Gouitvard: (Bramante), 177;
219: Borgia apartments: frescoes
Pauline Chapel:
123;
Fig.
(Pinturicchio),
frescoes (Michelangelo), 247; St. Peter's:
(Branianle), 156, 179-80, 256; Figs. 191,
192; (Hcemskerck), 388: (Nlichelangelo),
247-50; Figs. 311. 312; (Raphael), 173.
179-80; (.Sangallo the Younger). 180.
247; Fig. 224;
113;
Fig.
139;
tomb
(Pollaiuolo.
Sisline Chapel:
.\.
del).
frescoes:
(Miclicl.ingelo), 15, 124, 167-73, 247, 386,
389; (colorplate 27) 171; Figs. 1, 211-13,
306, 307; (Pelugino),i22,l67; (colorplate
21)
L13;
tapestries
(cartoons
for)
Fig. 217: Stanza
175-76;
d'Eliodoro (Raphael), 173-74, 175; (color-
(Raph.iel),
172: Si.inza della Segnaiura,
(Raphael), 163, 166; (colorplate 26) 170:
Fig. 207; Stanza dell'lmendio (Raphael),
plate 281
174. 176: Fig.
215
\audeiar, Bible ol Jean
271-72. 276; Fig. 338
de
(Bondol),
(nhi(ll.i..|i;
1
,11.11,1111111 l.iiinK
p., 111. ill
Ini.iii),
(
inuti). B.irlolomnu-o. 18s;
\hm.
„f
15: lig- 143: (.liiisl
Donalello.
,1
Fig
160:
114.
227
I'oiiitiil
1
Dnubtiiig Thamns,
,111,1
compared with
141:
tomh.
15; .Medici
14; Fig.
1
140
Versailles. 17
185: Fig. 231
.•mviano. AsiisliiKi: Siulplms
Sliiili,, (.iflci
(Ponionno). 208;
rntiiiiiiiii'.,111,1 1'iniiimi
Fig.
Upper Church.
259
257
li.iiicliiulli). 2116; Kin-
On
l)n
imvM
\i« Danieleda \oltcrra
\c)s.
Marten de, 408. 409. 410
Way
lo Paradise (Bouts), 308
Weighmaster (Krafft), 341; Fig. 423
W'eisskunig Visits
an
ArlisI
(Burgkmair); 355;
ami C.IM
445
von Railed (Pafler). 285: Fig. 352
VVesel, .Adrien von. 328
\Ve\den. Rogier van der.see Rogier van der
\Ve\den
IVeir.el
VVilloM Diptvch, 280; Fig. 351
UiMii.ir lastle: courtyard facade
(Aken and
Altdoifer. E). 399; Fig. 499
Willenbeig.404
Master ol the. 286
296-97. 319. 328; compared
with Flemalle. Master ol, 296-99; .V/irnrH/oiis Drajt III Fishes 297; (colorplate 45) 309;
Saint Peter ;i!tarpiece, 297; Synagogue
W'li/. (:ont;id,
(Fvck.
J. van).
.
Eiitliiiiiieil
(
liira), ill; Fig.
(Altar of Salvation), 296; Fig. 367
135
I
\inorino da
VVilling.ni altarpiece.
399
Hiiliii
Appeiirtiig
tii
a
Slirpliiiil liny
{
Mor<-no),
224; Fig. 275
\iigiii
Fig.
I'irglii
III
the liiiriiiiig
Hmh
(Fmincnt). 321;
396
III
Ciiiiii v,ni iler Fuelr (Fvik.
|.
van).
291; Fig. 361
riigiii „l the
Firescreen (Flcmalle, Master oO,
294, 297; Fig. 364
Firgin III the Kiicks (Letmardo
VVollllin. Heinrich. 17
Wolgiimil. .Michael. 334. 342
Uolse\, Cardinal, 400
II i/m<->( 0)1 a Balcony (\e10ne5e.
P.).
244; Fig.
302
Wood
sculpture. 331-33. 335
Worship oJ Venus (I itian). 193
Wtirzburg, 334
da
\'inci). 148;
177
lirgin with the Crern Cnshinn (Solario.
Aiuliea). 150
I'irgiii u'llh
GluiK
King Charles
I'l
Kneeling (P;irish
h. .Mtotting), 278; Fig.
i'lrgin jeith St.
347
Anne (Leonardo da
Yuung \h,n and Dralh lH,nisl)iuh
M.isier),
Yimlh Leaning an a Free (Hilli;u(ll, 404; Fig.
509
Vinci) 156;
Fig. 195
Vischer, Peter. 336, 341-42; King Arthur
(F'lnperor Maximilian itnnb), 342; Fig.
Man Breaking a Stick oj IViioil, 341;
426;
302
XiMccchio. Andrea
2'\2'.
Hippiilyta. 253
gill (jiinge), 322; Fig.
Fig
223: Fig. 274
302; Slipper
II
liigiii
lown Hall, porch. 398-99: Fig. 498;
Horsl c;islle. 399-400
eiona. 102; Cathedial: choir screen (Sanmicheli). 230; Fig. 283; City gates: (Sanmu heli). 230; Palazzo Bevilacqua: lagade
(Sanmicheli). 230; Fig. 282; -San Zeno:
lig.
Ginlia,
Rome; Poggia a
Rotonda, see Vi-
291, 302; Fig. 360
388. 390. 402
\eiiuKken. VViihelm. 398-99; Cologne:
.ind. 241. 244;
Rome;
lee
see
Florence;
de' Rossi, 253; D\tng Ailtmis, 253;
Hercules. 253; theseiis limbnicing
Viigm and
(lolorpl.ite 36) T'i)
\'einie\eil.
see
ImIiiiis iif
IS.'i
,;im (Cranach), 349-50; Fig. 437
|-,»i/v
Rome; Madam;i,
Caiano.
cenza
p.itcio).
.-Mihiit. 49; Fig. 49
Vitruvius, 83
Villoria, Alessandro, 246-47, 261; Doge
Niccoloda Pimtf. 247; Fig. 305; stucco, 247
Fig.
234
painting (Tin-
Fig. 349; (Life
\'i\aiini, .Mvise. 140
428
Rome: II Gesu. 234, 259; Fig. 292; Villa
Ginlia, 233, 234; Figs. 288, 289; writings.
Villa:
Assisi). 27; Fig. 21
(Boucicaut Master). 278, 2791, 297;
of Mary. Master of the),
328; Fig. 411; (Pontormo). 208
Vitale da Bologna. 49; Legend 11/ Si. Anthony
Vviilalion:
103: Fig. 127
Tmit
painting (Veronese. P.). 244: (lolorplaie
39) 2S4-i8. 320, 322, 326-27, 370, 384, 514I: V
Milan 11861; Archives Photographiques, Pari
Aragozzini,
1340-41, 344, 348, 390, 398, 453, 470, 493, 495): Bulloz, Pan
349, 386, 394, 396, 452) Bundesdenkmalamt, Vienna (407-8
;
(354,1:
-A.F.
Kersting,
Institut
London
fur
''497;:
(103.2931; Marburg-.^rt Reference
Bureau {356, 372-73. 376. 399. 401, 404, 418-19, 422, 436, 440,
Mas, Barcelona (319, 363, 456, 477, 483, 485-86,
476. 499-500)
1
(416); S. Hallgren, Stock-
Martin Hiirlimann, Zurich (271);
McKenna, New York
21-25, 29-30- 32-39. 4'-55- .17-59-61, 63-72, 74-75. 77-79.
82,84-90,92-103, 106. 109-11, 13-14, 1 16-18, 122-23, '26,
19,
(20, 236, 248,
308, 325); Giraudon, Paris (120, 204, 233, 339, 345-46, 369,
454, 492):
Denkmalpflege, Halle
A. C,L,, Brussels (357,360-62, 380-81,388-89,392,451, 4.59-60.
462, 464, 482, 510); Ahnari, Anderson, Brogi (1-5, 7, 9-14. 16-
Rome
;
Monuments Record, Crown
London ^501-2); Organization of Government
Distributed .Art Objects, The Netherlands (465!; Fernando
Pasta, Milan (1781; Eric Pollilzer. New York (220); Ludwig
Richter, Mainz 1402:1; Sagep. Genoa (322); Helga Schmidt489, 508, 520-24, 526); National
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\
EUROPE
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
lijiportiiiit
Colters
1300-1600
o Cracow
Creightov GllBKRI
Queens College of the
in
became Professor of
City L'niversit\ of
An
at
New \ork
1969. having previously been Sidney and Ellen
Wien Professor of the Historv of Art
University.
vard,
York
He
at
Brandeis
has been a visiting professor
at
Har-
The
University of California at Berkelev. New
University, and at the Universitv of Rome as a
He is one of about forty
who have Ijeen elected Fellows of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and in 1964
received the College Art Association's Mather Award
Fulbright senior lecturer.
art historians
for art criticism, the only time
writing on art of the past.
it
has been given for
.Among other books, he
has written Change in Piern delta Francesco
( 1
968), trans-
lated The Complete Poems and Selected Letters of
Michelangelo (1963), and edited an anthologv of
essays
under the
bert
the only .American
is
in the history
title
Studies
at
who has ever
of Italian art
In 1972-73 he was
goveriunent
Renaissance Art (1970). Mr. Gil-
at the
at
an
taught a course
Italian universitv.
awarded a fellowship b\ the Dutch
Netherlands Institute lor.Advanced
U'assenaar.
01 3-392 100-X
